Roman political ally of Pompey the Great
His loyalty to pompey the Great made Aulus Gabinus a political enemy of Julius caesar. While a tribune in 67 b.c.e., Gabinus gave Pompey unlimited command of the Roman forces handling the pirates marauding the Mediterranean at the time. He served as Pompey’s representative in Egypt from 66 to 63 b.c.e. during the troubled reign of ptolemy xii neos dionysius (Auletes) (r. 80-58, 55-51 b.c.e.) and was governor of Syria 57-54 b.c.e. Aulus Gabinus died in Illyricum (the modern Adriatic area).
Gallus, Gaius Cornelius (d. 26 b.c.e.) First Roman prefect of Egypt after the Roman occupation of the Nile Valley
He was appointed after the suicide of cleopatra vii (30 b.c.e.). An ally of Octavian, the future emperor Augustus, Gallus was renowned in Rome as a poet. He modeled his verse forms on the Alexandrian love poems popular at the time. He was also a friend of catullus and virgil. A manuscript in Gallus’s own hand was discovered in Primio (modern Qasr Ibrim), dating to c. 30 b.c.e. Gallus also inscribed his own name on a pyramid at giza. When he lost Augustus’s trust and friendship in 26 B.c.E.he committed suicide.
Garf Hussein
This was a site south of the first cataract of the Nile that was dedicated to the Memphis god ptah. Located near wadi alaki, Garf Hussein had a temple dedicated to Ptah, erected by ramesses ii (r. 1290-1224 b.c.e.) of the Nineteenth Dynasty. This shrine was built into a rocky cliff. A pylon led to a court area, where three porticos were highly decorated. A subterranean level of the temple contained a pillared hall and five sanctuaries in the form of crosses.
Gaugamela
A battle site in 331 b.c.e., where Alexander iii the great (r. 332-323 b.c.e.) defeated darius iii codoman (335-332 b.c.e.) of Persia, ending the Persian hopes of restoring the empire, Gaugamela was near Arbela in Babylonia (modern Iraq), and there the Persian armies lost to the Greek and Macedonian hosts. Darius escaped to Hyrcania, but he was slain by a subordinate.
Geb
An Egyptian deity worshiped throughout the nation as the father of osiris and the representation of the earth, he was the brother-husband of the goddess nut, the sky, fashioned by the creator atum, and the son of SHU and tefnut. Geb was also called “the Great Cackler,” a reference to the cosmic egg that contained the sun, the symbol of creation. In some temple reliefs, Geb was depicted as a man with a goose on his head.
When Atum discovered that Geb and Nut had become lovers, he commanded the god shu to separate them by raising Nut into the heavens as the sky. Geb was inconsolable, and as he wept over his loss his tears formed the oceans and seas on the earth. in reliefs he was shown in a prone position, weeping for Nut, and in his physical form representing earth’s mountains and valleys. Geb was a member of the ennead of heliopolis and the father of Osiris, isis, set, and nephthys, given birth by Nut on the epagomenal days of the calendar year along with Horus. He gave Lower Egypt to osiris and upper
Egypt to Set after centuries of ruling alone. Geb was worshiped in Bata, a shrine in heliopolis. He was the keeper of the throne and the wise speaker of the gods. As the earth, he was sometimes colored green. in funerary texts, Geb could be an enemy of the deceased. Earthquakes were considered the result of Geb’s laughter.
Gebel Adda
A site north of faras in nubia (modern Sudan), horemhab (r. 1319-1307 b.c.e.) of the Eighteenth Dynasty built a temple there honoring the deities amun and thoth. This shrine complex, part of the royal building programs in the territory, was graced with columned halls, a staircase, and three altar chambers for ceremonies.
Gebel Barkal
This was a site in nubia (modern Sudan) near the fourth cataract of the Nile. A temple honoring the god amun was started at Gebel Barkal by pharaohs of the Eighteenth Dynasty (1550-1307 b.c.e.) and refurbished by seti i (r. 1306-1290 b.c.e.) of the Nineteenth Dynasty. Gebel Barkal was one of the southernmost frontiers of Egypt during the imperial period, but it was not maintained by the less powerful rulers of the later eras. taharqa (r. 690-664 b.c.e.) erected a temple at Gebel Barkal, which was designated as a “Holy Mountain.” Tradition states that a giant cobra emerged from a cave in the mountain to witness the religious rites conducted there.
Gebel Dokhan
A site near dendereh, located in the wadi qena, where porphyry was quarried. The site became popular in the Roman Period (after 30 b.c.e.), boasting several temples and shrines.
Gebelein (Pi-Hathor, Pathyris)
This is the modern name for a site on the western shore of the Nile River, located south of erment. The city was originally called Pi-Hathor by the Egyptians, and then named Pathyris by the Greeks. Gebelein was a center for the goddess hathor from ancient times. Temples were discovered there from the Eleventh and Twelfth Dynasties (2040-1783 b.c.e.), all dedicated to this popular female deity. The necropolis area of the city also contained tombs from the First Intermediate Period (2134-2040 b.c.e.). Fragments from the Gebelein temple include inscriptions from the reign of montuhotep ii (2061-2010 b.c.e.), commemorating the ruler’s victories. The inscriptions do not specify whether the defeated enemies were Egyptians or foreign, and they possibly refer to Montuhotep ii’s victory over the city of herakleopolis in 2040 b.c.e.
Gebel el-Ahmar
A site called “the Red Mountain,” located south of modern cairo, where quartzite was produced for monuments, the stone in this quarry was reddish in color and one of the most beautiful and durable materials available to the Egyptians over the centuries. tuthmosis iii (r. 1479-1425 b.c.e.) fashioned a shrine out of the highly prized stone at heliopolis. Limestone was also mined in the region.
Gebel el-Sidmant
This is a site south of meidum, located near hierakonpolis. A large necropolis, the graves found there date to the old Kingdom (2575-2134 b.c.e.) and the First Intermediate Period (2134-2040 b.c.e.). Gebel el-Sidmant served the city of Hierakonpolis as a burial setting for the local nomarchs and the rulers of the Ninth and Tenth Dynasties.
Gebel el-Silsileh (Khenw, Khenyt, Chenu)
A quarry site south of edfu on the western shore of the Nile called Khenw, Khenyt, or chenu by the Egyptians, sandstone was plentiful at Gebel el-silsileh and was mined in many periods in Egypt’s history, particularly in the New Kingdom (1550-1070 b.c.e.). Three shrines were erected on the site by pharaohs of the New Kingdom: seti i (r. 1306-1290 b.c.e.), ramesses ii (r. 12901224 b.c.e.), and merenptah (r. 1224-1214 b.c.e.). A stela of Ramesses ii was discovered as well, and monuments of ramesses iii (r. 1194-1163 b.c.e.), ramesses v (r. 1156-1151 b.c.e.), and shoshenq i (r. 945-924 b.c.e.) were found there. horemhab (r. 1319-1307 b.c.e.) built a temple at Gebel el-Silsileh to commemorate his victory over the Nubians (modern Sudanese) to the south. The temple of Horemhab was designed with pillared halls, a rectangular vestibule, and a sanctuary. Reliefs throughout the temple depict Horemhab’s military prowess. Ceremonies of devotion to the god khnum were also performed in the temple. Grottoes, ruined chapels, sphinxes, and other stelae were discovered at Gebel el-silsileh, and to the northwest there are Greco-Roman ruins.
Gebel el-Zebara
A mining area in the Eastern Desert near edfu. seti i (r. 1306-1290 b.c.e.) sent expeditions to dig wells in the region to provide water for local workers. He also provided other accommodations for the well-being of the territory’s inhabitants. such mines were maintained throughout the nation’s history.
Gebel Mokattem
This was a limestone quarry located near modern Cairo that provided Tureh stone for royal building projects from the Early Dynastic Period (2920-2575 b.c.e.) until the collapse of the New Kingdom in 1070 b.c.e. The pyramids at giza and other monuments made use of the Gebel Mokattem stone.
Gebel Tingar
This is a site on the west bank of the Nile near modern aswan, serving as a quartzite quarry during the New Kingdom (1550-1070 b.c.e.). amenhotep ii (r. 1427-1401 b.c.e.) left a monument, a chapel, on the site.
genitals
The male reproductive organs received special attention from the Egyptian embalmers in some eras. During the Nineteenth (1307-1196 b.c.e.) and Twentieth (1196-1070 b.c.e.) Dynasties, the genitals of the mummified rulers were often surgically removed. They were then embalmed and placed in separate wooden receptacles fashioned in the image of the god osiris. Obviously this was done to commemorate the loss of osiris’s genitals when he was slain by the god set. ramesses iii (r. 1193-1163 b.c.e.) was definitely embalmed in this fashion. The Ramessids were from avaris, an area dedicated to the god set, as the names of some of the rulers indicate, and it may have been in tribute to set that the genitals were embalmed separately.
Gerze
This is a site in the faiyum region, called the Lower valley. A large necropolis was discovered at Gerze, dating to predynastic periods (before 3,000 b.c.e.). A distinct predynastic period, the Gerzean Period (also called Naqada II), stems from this region. The graves in this necropolis were oval in shape, normally fashioned out of brick or wood.
Ghurob Shrine Papyrus
A document containing details of a special shrine erected by tuthmosis iii (r. 1479-1425 b.c.e.) of the Eighteenth Dynasty, the shrine was a casket made of gilded wood. The papyrus commemorating the event, in a single roll, is now in London.
Gilukipa (fl. 14th century b.c.e.)
Royal woman of the Eighteenth Dynasty
she was the daughter of King shuttarna or shutama of the mitannis, who arrived in thebes as part of an alliance between her father and amenhotep iii (r. 1391-1353 b.c.e.). When she entered Thebes in a wedding procession, Gilukipa had 317 serving women in her retinue. she entered Amenhotep Ill’s harem and resided at malkata, on the western shore of Thebes. scarabs were produced and distributed throughout Egypt by the royal court to commemorate her arrival on the Nile in Amenhotep Ill’s 10th regnal year.
“Ginger”
A mummified Egyptian now on display in the Egyptian Antiquities Department of the British Museum in London and dating to c. 3300 b.c.e. or earlier, the mummified remains were named “Ginger” because of the reddish brown color of his hair. “Ginger” was not embalmed but mummified by the hot sands of his original grave on the edge of the desert. His fingernails and toenails are perfectly preserved. He was buried lying on his left side, face down, with his hands positioned under his head. His remains were covered with sand and then with rocks.
Girdle of Isis
An Egyptian amulet, called the thet and shaped in the form of an ankh, with drooping lateral arms, the Girdle of isis was usually fashioned out of jasper, carnelian, or some other red material. The amulet was believed to confer strength upon the living and the dead. When used in funerary ceremonies, the Girdle of isis was made of gold and was dipped in a bowl of flowers and water and then placed on the corpse.
Giza
This is a plateau southwest of modern Cairo that served as a necropolis for the royal families of the Fourth Dynasty (2575-2465 b.c.e.). The Great pyramid, erected in the reign of khufu (Cheops; 2551-2528 b.c.e.), is the largest of the plateau monuments and the only surviving Wonder of the Ancient World. There are other funerary monuments or relics that predate the Fourth Dynasty at Giza, and later pharaohs erected or converted existing ones. A mastaba at Giza dates to the reign of djet (c. 2850 b.c.e.) in the First Dynasty, surrounded by the graves of more than 50 servants, which denotes that the individual buried in the mastaba (as yet unidentified) was a person of considerable rank. jar sealings inscribed with the name of ninetjer (r. c. 2670 b.c.e.), a ruler of the second Dynasty, were found in an area south of the main necropolis.
The Great Pyramid, called “the Horizon of Khufu,” originally stood 480 feet high on a 755-foot base. The pyramid was built using 3.2 million blocks of limestone, each weighing 2.5 tons. The pyramid was covered in Tureh limestone and capped with a gold pyramid-ion. inside the structure, the King’s chamber was designed to ease pressure from the slanted design. A Grand Gallery extends through the edifice, and there is a Queen’s chamber and an Ascending Gallery. A descending corridor leads to a bedrock burial chamber, which appears to have been abandoned early in the construction. An enclosure wall was also provided for the pyramid, and a mortuary temple was erected on the eastern side of the pyramid. This temple is a rectangular building with a basalt pavement and an interior courtyard. A causeway originally 2,630 feet long extended from this temple, but it is now buried under the modern settlement of Nazlet el-Simman. The valley temple had a black-green basalt pavement, 180 feet long, and mud-brick walls 26 feet wide.
subsidiary pyramids were placed near the Great Pyramid, one belonging to Queen hetepheres (1), the second to Queen meritites (1), and another belonging to Queen henutsen. This last pyramid was provided with a mortuary chapel on the eastern side. A fourth finished pyramid has not been identified, and there are two other such tombs, not completed. Another subsidiary pyramid was situated at the southeastern corner of the Great Pyramid. This was probably designed for Khufu’s ka or for his heb-sed memorial, the commemoration of the decades of his reign.
Five boat pits have been discovered around the Great Pyramid, two of which contained Khufu’s barks. Seventy mastabas, containing Khufu’s servants, were situated nearby. There was also a harbor, linking the complex to the Nile. This harbor has now disappeared, but a half-mile wall remains to mark the perimeter. This border is called Heit el-Ghurab, the Wall of the crow.
khafre (Chephren; r. 2520-2494 b.c.e.) built the second massive pyramid that stands on the Giza plateau. The structure is smaller than Khufu’s, but it was erected on a rise and appears almost the same height. Khafre’s pyramid originally rose to a height of 471 feet, on a 705-foot base. There are two entrances, descending passages, an ascending corridor, and a burial chamber containing a red granite sarcophagus. One subsidiary pyramid rests beside Khafre’s monument, probably the tomb of an unidentified queen. Five boat pits were also installed on the site. Khafre’s mortuary temple was made of limestone and had a pillared hall, two chambers, and an open courtyard. Magazines and statuary niches completed the design. A causeway, some 1,600 feet in length, was attached to the mortuary temple. The valley temple was a square structure with two entrances. Magnificent statues of Khafre, protected by horus, were discovered there.
The third massive structure on the Giza plateau is the pyramid erected as the resting place of menkaure (Mycerinus; r. 2490-2472 b.c.e.). It is the smallest of the great pyramids of Giza and was unfinished when Menkaure died. This pyramid, however, was completed by Menkaure’s son and heir, shepseskhaf Originally 240 feet high, the pyramid was erected on a 357-foot base. An unusual feature of this monument is the use of reliefs depicting the palace walls of the period on interior walls. Mycerinus’s mortuary temple was made of mud bricks. The causeway that was attached to the temple was 1,995 feet in length, and another mud-brick valley temple contained fine triad statues. Three subsidiary pyramids were erected beside Menkaure’s main tomb. it is believed that Queen khamerernebty (2) was buried in one of these, but they were never finished.
The Great sphinx stands in front of Khafre’s pyramid, with that pharaoh’s features imposed upon its face. This is an image of a mythical beast with the body of a lion and the head of a man, wearing the nemes, the royal head covering. The statue was carved out of a knoll of poor-grade limestone and is 150 feet long and 75 feet high, from base to crown. The modern name is a Greek version of the Egyptian shesep-ankh, “the living image.” The sphinx is believed to represent Khafre, as Horus of the Horizon. originally the carving was faced with Tureh limestone, and a beard extended from the chin, almost to the center of the breast. A stela dating from the reign of tuthmosis iv (1401-1391 b.c.e.) rests between its paws.
The private necropolis of Giza lies east and west of the pyramids. some later burials disrupt the orderly layout of the Fourth Dynasty complex. Of particular interest is the tomb of Queen merysankh (3), the consort of Khafre and the daughter of Prince kewab and Queen het-epheres (2). Remarkable scenes and a row of statues of the royal family fill this vast burial site. The tomb was originally made for Queen Hetepheres (2), who gave it to Merysankh (3) when she died young. The plateau of Giza also contains the ruins of a temple honoring horus of the Horizon. This shrine was erected near the Great sphinx by amenhotep ii (r. 1427-1401 b.c.e.) of the Eighteenth Dynasty. A temple of isis was also formed in one of the subsidiary pyramids of Giza by a later dynasty.
The watcher on the horizon, the Great Sphinx, the mysterious monument at Giza. Courtesy Thierry Ailleret
A vast area containing the ruins of living quarters, clinics, bakeries, breweries, and other structures has been discovered at Giza in recent years. An ongoing excavation of the area is being conducted to uncover this workers’ village. The ruins confirm the fact that able-bodied Egyptians provided free labor throughout the building process of the Giza plateau complexes. The corvee system entitled the pharaohs to request such services from the people, especially during the time of the annual inundation. slaves were not used to build the pyramids, which were national projects, undertaken freely by the entire populace in service to the pharaoh and the gods.
gods and goddesses
The supernatural beings who constituted the great pantheon of deities in ancient Egypt, some surviving throughout the history of the nation. These deities served as the focal points for Egyptian cultic rites and personal spiritual aspirations. The deities associated with creation and cosmological roles were worshiped throughout the Nile Valley, and others evolved from local fetish symbols and particular geographic traditions. still others were associated with mortuary and funerary rites and were beloved throughout the land.
The predynastic Egyptians, those living in Egypt before 3000 b.c.e., practiced animism, the spiritual and philosophical system that was mirrored in other aboriginal peoples in the region. Through animism, the belief that all objects on earth have consciousness and a personality, the earliest Egyptians sought to explain natural forces and the role human beings played in the patterns of existence. Animism defined “spirits” in creatures and in nature and included awareness of the power of the dead. Animists felt compelled to placate such spirits and to cooperate with immaterial entities that they believed populated the world.
DEITIES OF EGYPT
The major deities of Egypt are provided with individual entries because of the complex roles, cultic ramifications, and titular designations associated with their worship. The major deities of Egypt are:
aa a companion of the heart of the god Re. a’ah a moon deity associated with Osiris. a’a nefer the sacred bull of Hermonthis, associated with Montu.
aion a Greek-introduced personification of time. AKER a lion deity associated with mortuary rituals. amaunet the consort of the god Amun in the Ogdoad. AMEMAIT a mortuary creature that devoured the unworthy dead.
ami-ut a canine god of death, associated with Osiris.
amun the Theban deity who assumed national dominance, associated with Re.
anath a Canaanite goddess of love and war.
andjeti a shepherd deity associated with Osiris.
anhur a solar deity of the Nile Valley.
ani a moon deity, a form of Khons.
anit the consort of the god Ani.
anti an ancient war god of Egypt.
anubis a deity of the dead, associated with Osiris.
anukis the goddess of the first cataract of the Nile.
apedemak a Nubian lion deity worshiped in Egypt.
apis the sacred bull of the Ptah-Sokar-Osiris cult.
apophis (1) the serpent enemy of the god Re.
arsenuphis the “Good Companion” from Nubia.
astarte a Syrian war goddess adopted in the New Kingdom era in Egypt.
asten a patron of wisdom and a companion of the god Thoth.
aten a solar deity, the solar disk. atum a deity of creation. BA a deity of the eternal paradise. ba’eb djet the sacred ram of Mendes.
bain-a’abtiu the deities of souls transformed into baboons
at dawn. bait the consort of Ba.
BAsTET the feline patroness of the arts and pregnant women.
BATA (1) an ancient bull deity.
BEs the dwarf patron of women, childbirth, and war. beset the consort of Bes.
buchis the sacred bull representing the deity Montu. dedun the patron of Nubia, adopted by Egypt. DOuAO the patron of diseases of the eye. duamutef a son of Horus, patron of canopic jars. ernutet a patroness of the Faiyum area. esye a deity of wisdom, associated with the god Thoth. forty-two judges the patrons of the Judgment Halls of osiris.
geb an earth deity, husband of Nut. ha a fertility deity, patron of deserts. hapi (1) the Nile god.
hapi (2) a son of Horus, patron of the canopic jars. harsaphes the creator ram deity.
harsomtus a divine being from the union of Hathor and Horus.
hathor a solar goddess, patroness of the sky and a popular deity.
hat-mehit the patroness of Mendes.
HEH the god of eternity, consort of Hauket.
HEKET the frog-headed goddess, consort of Hek.
hemetch the serpent demon of the Tuat, or Underworld.
heneb an ancient deity of argiculture.
heptet a protectoress associated with Osiris.
hetephakef an ancient deity of Memphis.
horus a major solar deity, assuming many roles.
HRAF-HEF the divine ferryman of the dead.
Hu a Heliopolis god of taste.
HUDET a divine, winged form of the god Re.
IMSETY a son of Horus, guardian of the canopic jars.
inuet a consort of the god Montu.
isis the mother of the gods, consort of osiris, mother of Horus.
iusas a consort of the god Tem. kamutef a creator deity associated with Amun. kebawet an ancient goddess of eternal paradises. khaftet-hir-nebes a protector goddess of Thebes. khatru the mongoose deity (ichneumon). khentiamentiu an early funerary deity, obscured by osiris.
kheper a solar deity, the form of the sun at dawn. khnum a creator deity called the “Molder,” patron of Elephantine island.
Renditions of the god Sobek and other deities attending the pharaoh shown in the center, as carved onto a temple wall.
khons the moon deity of the Theban triad, patron of childbirth.
ma’ahes a lion god, probably originating in Nubia.
ma’at the goddess of cosmic awareness and order, associated with osiris.
MAFDET a feline goddess associated with solar cults.
mandulis a Nubian deity honored in Egypt.
MATiT a lion goddess associated with the god Re.
mau a symbol of Bast, associated with the Persea Tree.
MAu-TAui a mortuary deity who aided osiris.
mehen the serpent associated with the divine bark of Re.
MEHURT a celestial cow deity associated with the waters of heaven.
menyu a warrior bull god called the Lord of the Desert. MERESGER a cobra goddess of the necropolis of Thebes, the Lover of silence. MERiT the goddess of the inundation of the Nile. meskhent the goddess of childbirth, associated with Hathor.
min a fertility deity, patron of desert travels and crop harvests.
mnevis a bull god of Heliopolis.
montu a war deity, represented by the Buchis bull.
MUT the patroness of the pharaohs.
nebertcher a divine personification of the god Re.
nebetu’u a form of Hathor, worshiped in Esna.
nefer-hor a form of the god Ptah at Memphis.
nehah-re a serpent associated with the solar cults.
nehem-awit a divine form of Hathor.
nehes a divine form of Re.
neith a patroness of the Delta and a war goddess.
nekhebet a vulture goddess, patroness of Upper Egypt.
neper a grain god associated with harvests.
nephthys the patroness of the dead, consort of Set and mother of Anubis.
neser a fish deity.
nun the deity of chaos and the primordial age. nut the goddess of the heavens and consort of Geb.
osiris the beloved patron of Egypt and judge of the dead.
PAKHET a lioness deity, patroness of the living and the dead.
PAR a form of the god Amun, an agricultural deity.
pneb-tawy a deity of Kom Ombo, called the Lord of the Two Lands.
PTAH the cosmogonic creator deity of all eras.
qebehsennuf a divine son of the god Horus, and guardian of the canopic jars.
qebhet the personification of cool water, associated with paradise.
qebhui the god of the north wind.
re major solar deity of Egypt.
renenet a goddess of good fortune.
renpet a goddess of the calendrical year.
REPYT a lioness goddess of Egypt.
RET an ancient solar goddess of Heliopolis.
SATET the patroness of the Nile and a goddess of Elephantine island.
A procession of divine beings welcoming a royal deceased (the central figure) into paradise, on a temple wall at Abydos.
sefer-t a winged lion associated with the Pyramid Texts.
sekhmet a lioness goddess of war and consort of Ptah.
selket a scorpion goddess associated with Isis.
SEPT a deity of the twentieth nome and associated with Horus.
SHAI a goddess of fate.
SHESHAT a patroness of learning and records.
shesmetet a lioness goddess, a form of Bastet.
SHU a deity of the air, associated with Atum.
SOBEK a crocodile deity of the Faiyum area.
SOKAR a deity of the Memphite necropolis.
soknoknonneus a Greek deity introduced in the Ptolemaic Period.
SUTEKH a canine god associated with set.
TAIT a goddess of linen, associated with Akhmin.
tasenetnofret a goddess of Kom Ombo, called the Good sister.
tatenen an earth god, called the Risen Land.
tawaret the hippopotamus goddess, patroness of childbirth.
tchesertep a serpent demon who threatens the dead.
tefnut the consort of Shu, a goddess representing rain,dew, and moisture.
TEM a solar deity of the setting sun.
THOTH the ancient god of learning and wisdom.
tjet the god of Busiris and Mendes, associated with osiris.
typhonean animal a form of the god Set. unu the hare deity of Egypt.
WA a companion of the Divine Heart of Re. wadjet the cobra patroness of Lower Egypt, associated with isis.
wenut the rabbit goddess of Thebes.
WEPWAWET the wolf god, associated with Anubis.
WERET the deity of the sky, associated with Thoth and Horus.
The concerns for such “spirits” in the realm of the dead led to elaborate funerary rituals and a sophisticated belief system concerning existence beyond the grave. Animism also concerned the “spirits” of all natural things as well. The Egyptians lived with forces that they did not understand. storms, earthquakes, floods, and dry periods all seemed inexplicable, yet the people realized acutely that natural forces had an impact on human affairs. The “spirits” of nature were thus deemed powerful, in view of the damage they could inflict on humans. it was also believed that the “spirits” of nature could inhabit human bodies.
Two other forms of worship coexisted with animism: fetishism and totemism. Fetishism recognized a spirit in an object (as in animism) but treated the object as if it had a conscious awareness of life around it and could bring to bear certain magical influences. Fetishes had two significant aspects: first as the object in which a “spirit” was present and, second, as an object used by a “spirit” for a specific purpose (such as amulets or talismans). Totems evolved out of nome emblems, a particular animal portrait or sign that signified the province’s spirit. such totems appeared on the nome staffs used in battle, and each nome unit marched behind its own leader and its own insignias in the early historical periods.
several ancient gods and goddesses of Egypt were associated with these totems. neith, hathor, montu, and min, for example, were early examples of fertility, hunting, pleasure, and war. Fetishes appeared early in amulet form as well. The djed Pillar, which was associated with the god osiris, became the nation’s symbol for stability. The girdle of isis represented the virtues of that goddess as a wife and divine mother. As the predy-nastic period drew to a close, certain fetishes and totems were given human traits and characteristics, a process called anthropomorphism. The Egyptian gods evolved during this era, particularly osiris, who represented not only the death of the earth at the end of the growing season but the regeneration of plant life as well. At that time, animals became objects of cultic devotion because of their particular abilities, natures, or roles on earth. some were made divine because of the dangers they posed to humans, in an effort to constitute what is called sympathetic magic. In time, others were used as theo-phanies, manifestations of the gods, because of their familiar traits or characteristics.
Although the Egyptians were polytheists, they displayed a remarkable henotheism: the act of worshiping one god while not denying the existence of others. This is particularly evident in the hymns, didactic literature, and tales of Egyptians, where the devoted addressed one god as the self-created supreme being. The Egyptians had no problem with a multitude of gods, and they seldom shelved old deities in favor of new ones. The characteristics and roles of older deities were syncretized to reconcile changes or differences in beliefs, customs, and ideals of particular eras. it has been argued by some scholars, in fact, that the Egyptians were actual monotheists who viewed all other deities as avatars, or representations of one, self-begotten, created god. Whatever intent prompted the pantheon of gods in Egypt, some of these supernatural beings interjected remarkable concepts into the human experience. The cult of ptah, for example, based traditions upon the use of the logos, and the deity amun, the unseen creator of life, represented profound recognition of the spiritual aspirations of humans.
