Famed sculptor of the Eighteenth Dynasty
He served amenhotep iii (r. 1391-1353 b.c.e.). Ipuki was a famous sculptor involved in the royal building programs of the period. He was buried at thebes on the western shore near deir el-bahri. A fellow artist named nebamun (2) shared Ipuki’s tomb.
Iput (1) (fl. 24th century b.c.e.)
Royal woman of the Sixth Dynasty
She was a daughter of unis (r. 2356-2323 b.c.e.) and became the consort of teti (r. 2323-2291 b.c.e.). Iput was the mother of pepi i (r. 2289-2255 b.c.e.) and served as his regent during his infancy. Her tomb in saqqara, near Teti’s pyramid, contained a limestone sarcophagus, and her mummy was interred in a cedar coffin. There is evidence of a robbery soon after her burial, but a necklace and bracelet were discovered in her tomb. Her mortuary temple, now in ruins, contained a limestone false door with her name and titles and an offering table of red granite.
Iput (2) (fl. 23rd century b.c.e.)
Royal woman of the Sixth Dynasty
The daughter of pepi i (r. 2289-2255 b.c.e.) or merenre (r. 2255-2246 b.c.e.), she was a lesser ranked queen of pepi ii (r. 2246-2152 b.c.e.). Her tomb at saqqara was decorated with a version of the pyramid texts.
Iput-isut
An Egyptian term translated as “the most revered place,” used to designate the original core of the temple of amun at karnak, in thebes, the Iput-isut stood between the festival hall erected by tuthmosis iii (r. 1479-1425 b.c.e.) and the pylon erected by montuhotep ii (r. 2061-2010 b.c.e.). The origins or foundations of temples were esteemed over the centuries because they had spiritual connotations of dating to “the time of the gods,” the moment of creation. See also foundation deposits.
Irbast’udjefru (fl. eighth century b.c.e.)
Royal woman of the Twenty-third Dynasty
She was the consort of peftjau’abast (r. 740-725 b.c.e.), the daughter of rudamon, and a niece of takelot iii. Peftjau’abast was defeated by the Nubian (modern Sudanese) armies of piankhi (1) and was reduced to the status of governor for his former capital, herakleopolis.
Irukaptah (fl. 24th century b.c.e.)
Official of the royal kitchens during the Fifth Dynasty
He was “the chief of Butchers” during the reign of several pharaohs and was buried in the royal complex of saqqara as a sign of his rank and faithful service. Irukap-tah’s elegant burial site contained reliefs and paintings depicting the butchering of animals. He also commissioned ka statues for his burial site.
Irunefer (fl. 13th century b.c.e.)
Nineteenth Dynasty artist and official of the Valley of the Kings
He served several rulers in royal burial projects in the valley of the kings on the west bank of the nile at thebes. His tomb at deir el-medina, the community erected for the artisans, who were called “the servants of the place of truth,” identifies him and his family. A rock-cut chamber, originally capped with a brick pyramid, the burial site contained portraits of his father, Siwozet, and his mother, Tauret. They are depicted wearing white wigs.
Iry Hor (fl. before 3,000 b.c.e.)
Predynastic ruler who reigned before the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt His burial site is reportedly at abydos, where he was venerated as a warrior from “the time of the gods.” Details about the actual lives of such predynastic figures are interwoven with mythical lore.
Iseion
This was a temple complex dedicated to the cult of the Egyptian goddess isis. Established by ptolemy ii philadelphus (r. 285-246 b.c.e.), the Iseion was located in the Damietta region of the Nile in the eastern Delta.
Iset (1) (fl. 15th century b.c.e.)
Royal woman of the Eighteenth Dynasty, the mother of Tuthmosis III (1479-1425 b.c.e.)
She was not a princess by birth but a concubine of tuthmosis ii, bearing the heir to the throne. As the mother of a pharaoh, Iset rose to a high rank in the Theban court. She was buried in thebes.
Iset (2) (Iset Takemdjert) (fl. 12th century b.c.e.)
Royal woman of the Twentieth Dynasty She was the ranking queen of ramesses iii (r. 1194-1163 b.c.e.). She was the mother of ramesses iv, and probably ramesses vi, ramesses viii, and Princes kha’emweset (2), amenhirkhopshef (1), and meryamen. Her large tomb was the last one erected in the valley of the queens on the western shore of thebes. When Prince Amenhirkhopshef died at the age of nine, Queen Iset miscarried the child that she was carrying at the news of his demise.
Iset (3) (fl. 14th century b.c.e.)
Royal woman of the Eighteenth Dynasty
She was the daughter of amenhotep iii (r. 1391-1353 b.c.e.) and Queen tiye (1). Like her royal sister, sitamun (2), Iset married her father. A cartouche discovered on a cosmetic case commemorates this marriage.
Isetnofret (1) (fl. 13th century b.c.e.)
Royal woman of the Nineteenth Dynasty
She was the ranking consort of ramesses ii (r. 1290-1224 b.c.e.). Isetnofret replaced Queen nefertari Merymut as the Great Wife sometime after the dedication of abu simbel by the pharaoh. She was the mother of Ramesses Il’s successor, merenptah (r. 1224-1214 b.c.e.), and she bore several other sons and daughters, including Prince Kha’emweset and Queen bint-anath. Isetnofret died or retired to mi-wer, the harem enclosure in the faiyum a decade after replacing Nefertari. There is some indication that she may have been buried in the serapeum (1) alongside her son, Prince Kha’emweset (1).
Isetnofret (2) (fl. 13th century b.c.e.)
Royal woman of the Nineteenth Dynasty
She was the ranking consort of merenptah (r. 1224-1214 b.c.e.), also his sister. Isetnofret was the mother of seti ii (r. 1214-1204 b.c.e.), Prince Kha’emweset, and Princess isetnofret.
Isetnofret (3) (fl. 12th century b.c.e.)
Royal woman of the Twentieth Dynasty
She was the consort of ramesses iv (r. 1163-1156 b.c.e.) and his sister. isetnofret was not the mother of the heir.
Isetnofret (4) (fl. 12th century b.c.e.)
Royal woman of the Twentieth Dynasty
A consort of ramesses vii (1143-1136 b.c.e.), Isetnofret bore a son, Prince Ramesses.
Isfet
This was the Egyptian word for chaos or disorder, a state abhorred by the people of the Nile Valley. MA’AT, the social imperative of the nation, opposed isfet and its manifestations.
Ished Tree
A sacred tree in Egypt, thought to be the Balanites aegyptiaca, the Ished Tree was used as a symbol throughout the nation’s history, dating to the earliest periods. Like the persea tree, the Ished Tree was associated with life and destiny. The god thoth and the goddess seshat wrote the names of the newly appointed pharaohs on the leaves of the ished Tree.
Isis (Eset, Iset, Weret-Hikau, Mut-netjer)
The most enduring and beloved goddess of Egypt, whose name was translated as “the seat,” she was also addressed as Weret-Hikau, “the Great of Magic,” and as Mut-netjer, “the Mother of the Gods.” Her cult started in the Delta, and she was praised in the pyramid texts of the Old Kingdom (2575-2134 b.c.e.) as “the Great One.” She was hailed as the wife of the god osiris and was credited with civilizing Egypt with her husband and institutionalizing marriage.
The traditions concerning her cult state that when Osiris was slain by the god set, Isis began a journey to discover his remains. osiris’s coffin was eventually engulfed by a fragrant tamarisk tree, and isis soon found the box and the corpse in byblos, where it floated on the Mediterranean sea. Many adventures accompanied this search. Returning to the swamplands of buto, Isis hid the coffin of osiris, but set discovered it and dismembered the body into 14 pieces. isis persisted and began to look for the parts of her husband. she found all of his remains except for his phallus, which had been devoured by a Nile fish, called oxyrrynchus (2) by the Greeks.
Fashioning the body together and reanimating it, isis became pregnant from the corpse. she then fled to the mythical island of chemmis, where wadjet, the goddess protector of Lower Egypt, kept her and her newborn son, horus, safe from the agents of Set. In time, however, Set attacked Horus as a serpent, and isis had to call upon the god re for aid. Re sent thoth to be her ally. He was able to exorcise the poison from the child by reciting the cosmic disasters that would occur if the baby did not recover. Horus was cured and then given to local inhabitants to be cared for in safety. He also became their leader, thus uniting the cultic myth to the real populace of the Delta.
In another adventure, the goddess isis discovered the secret name of the god Re, viewed always as the most potent of magical weapons. she thus provided herself with additional powers, all of which she dedicated to the service of mankind. isis was the epitome of the selfless woman, the charmer, the endurer, and the loyal spouse. To the Egyptians of every generation she was “the fertile plain, the arbor and the gentle pool of living waters.” The cult of isis endured because she fostered honor, courage, and loyalty in people, while evoking sympathy, admiration, and a recognition of injustice.
In the Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 b.c.e.) there were passion plays featuring the dramatic events of isis’s legends. In the New Kingdom (1550-1070 b.c.e.) in the various versions of the topic of the dead, Isis was hailed as the Divine Mother of Horus, the Widow of osiris, clever and energetic and ever true. she is listed in the westcar papyrus as the protective deity of Egypt’s royals.
Queen arsinoe (1) Philadelphia introduced Isis to the Ptolemaic court (c. 280 b.c.e.), and cult centers appeared in bubastis, busiris, dendereh, Alexandria, tebtynis, Medinet Ma’adi, Memphis, and elsewhere. As Isis Pelagia, the goddess was the patroness of the capital, Alexandria. philae, the great monument of Isis, was adorned by all of the ptolemaic period rulers. Many hymns to isis were intoned in the ptolemaic period as well, and she was identified with an array of Greek goddesses. By the fourth century b.c.e., Athens honored Isis with a temple, and she was worshiped in Italy in the second century b.c.e. The “Isia” was a Roman festival held in honor of her search for osiris. A temple complex called the iseion was erected in Egypt, and shrines for her cult were popular in Tyre, Gaza, Crete, Thessaly, Chios, Lesbos, Delos, Cyprus, Epirus, Megara, Corinth, Argos, Malta, Castanio, Reggio, Pompeii, Herculaneum, Rome, Marseilles, and then in Spain, Germany, Gaul, Switzerland (Helvetia), and North Africa.
Columns forming a hall leading to an interior chamber in the temple of Isis, the Mother Goddess, at Philae.
Despite efforts to eradicate Isis’s cult in certain periods in Rome, the cult continued until the reign of the Emperor Justinian. The Greeks and the Romans were entranced by the mysteries of her rituals and by the exotic, charming image that she conveyed. The goddess was normally portrayed as a woman with a throne on her head, the spelling of her name in Egyptian, and a symbol connected to osirian ceremonies. in many periods she was depicted as wearing the sun disk, set between the horns of a cow. In this representation, she was sometimes associated with the goddess hathor.
Island of Trampling
A spiritual site called Geswaret that appeared at the moment of creation in Egypt’s cos-mological texts, wa and aa, the companions of the divine heart, landed there. The Island of Trampling was depicted in reliefs in the temple of edfu. ptah was also honored as part of this devotion, as well as horus. See also primeval mound.
Issus
This was an ancient battle site near Alexandretta, on the Gulf of Issus in modern Syria, where Alexander iii the great (r. 332-323 b.c.e.) inflicted his second major defeat on the army of darius iii codoman (r. 335-332 b.c.e.). After his victory at the granicus River, Alexander conquered Asia Minor and moved toward Phoenicia (modern Lebanon) and Egypt. The persian cavalry raced to intercept him, vastly outnumbering the Greeks. The Persian force was routed, along with Darius Ill’s infantry. The mother and wife of Darius III were captured in this confrontation. Alexander refused the persian overtures of peace and proceeded toward Egypt.
Istemkhebe (1) (fl. 11th century b.c.e.)
Royal woman of the Twenty-first Dynasty
She was the wife of pinudjem (1), the high priest of amun, at thebes, and the mother of masaharta and Djed-khonsufankh.
Istemkhebe (2) (fl. 11th century b.c.e.)
Royal woman of the Twenty-first Dynasty
She was the wife of menkheperresenb (2), the high priest of amun at thebes, and the mother of smendes (2).
Istemkhebe (3) (fl. 11th century b.c.e.)
Royal woman of the Twenty-first Dynasty
She was the wife of pinudjem (2), the high priest of amun in thebes. She was the mother of psusennes ii (r. 959-945 b.c.e.) and ma’atkare (2).
Ita (fl. 19th century b.c.e.)
Royal woman of the Twelfth Dynasty
She was a daughter of amenemhet ii (r. 1929-1892 b.c.e.). Ita was buried in dashur beside her father’s pyramid with her sister, khnumt. Her burial chamber contained a bronze ceremonial dagger, a ceremonial mace, and jewelry, including loose carnelian pieces and glazed beads. Her tomb was enclosed by a trap door and contained a limestone sarcophagus. Ita’s mummy had a bitumen-soaked covering under a thin layer of plaster. Her funerary mask had gold trim and silver mounted eyes.
Itaweret (fl. 19th century b.c.e.)
Royal woman of the Twelfth Dynasty
She was a daughter of amenemhet ii (r. 1929-1892 b.c.e.). Itaweret was buried at dashur near her father, and her tomb contained a rose granite sarcophagus. Gold and stone bracelets, a collar of gold and beads, a crown, and a statue of a swan were discovered in her burial chamber.
Itekuyet (fl. 20th century b.c.e.)
Royal woman of the Twelfth Dynasty
The daughter of senwosret i (r. 1971-1926 b.c.e.), she was buried in el-LiSHT near her father’s pyramid, and her funerary regalia was elaborate.
Itj-tawy
This was the capital of the Twelfth Dynasty (1991-1783 b.c.e.), started by amenemhet i (r. 19911962 b.c.e.). He called the site Amenemhet-Itj-tawy, “It Is Amenemhet who Has conquered the Two Lands.” The name was shortened to Itj-tawy, “Seizer-of-the-Two-Lands.” The capital was near modern el-LiSHT. The actual site has not been determined, and no excavations have been conducted in the area.
Ity (fl. 22nd century b.c.e.)
Ruler of the Ninth Dynasty, date of reign unknown
His capital was at herakleopolis, and he was the successor of Khaneferre. Ity’s brief reign is obscure, and his burial site is unknown.
Iuni (fl. 14th century b.c.e.)
Viceroy of the Nineteenth Dynasty
He served both seti i (r. 1306-1290 b.c.e.) and ramesses ii (r. 1290-1224 b.c.e.) as the viceroy of nubia (modern Sudan). Originally from the faiyum, Iuni followed Amen-emopet as vizier for the Ramessid rulers, regulating trade and overseeing the military installations guarding the Nile and ASWAN.
Iuput (fl. 10th century b.c.e.)
Prince of the Twenty-second Dynasty
The son of shoshenq i (r. 945-924 b.c.e.) and Queen karomana (1), Iuput was appointed the high priest of Amun at thebes in order to consolidate the nation. He then became involved in a massive effort to preserve royal mummies from further desecration in tomb robberies. iuput also served as the governor of upper Egypt and the commander of the regional armies. He was not the heir to the throne. Iuput aided in the erection of the bubastite portal in karnak. His tomb at abydos is a long narrow pit with a granite burial chamber, never used.
Iuput I (d. c. 805 b.c.e.)
Coruler of the Twenty-third Dynasty
He was the son and coregent of pedubaste i (r. 828-803 b.c.e.). They ruled in leontopolis, but Iuput I died about two years after being named coregent with his father.
Iuput II (fl. eighth century b.c.e.)
Ruler of the Twenty-third Dynasty
He was the successor to rudamon. The actual dates of his reign are unknown. He ruled at leontopolis and then joined tefnakhte of sais in opposing the invasion of piankhi (1) (r. 750-712 b.c.e.) and the Nubian (modern Sudanese) armies. Defeated at herakleopolis by Piankhi, iuput ii was made a vassal governor of Leontopolis.
Iusas (Nebhethotep)
A goddess of Egypt, sometimes worshiped as Nebhethotep, she was a consort of the god tem (1), depicted in some periods as the sole parent of the deities SHU and tefnut. Portrayed as a woman holding a scepter and an ankh, she is shown wearing a vulture headdress and a horned disk. iusas was a female aspect of Tem.
Iuwelot
A royal estate was located at Lake moeris, refurbished in all eras of Egypt’s history. This estate was called “the Great Lake” and was watered by the bahr yusef (named for a local Muslim hero), the river that branched from the Nile into the faiyum. A series of dikes and sluices was erected and maintained by all of the royal dynasties there.
Ivory
A substance highly prized by the ancient Egyptians and called abu. The Egyptians had to import ivory, receiving most of it on elephantine Island, brought northward from nubia (modern Sudan). During the New Kingdom (1550-1070 b.c.e.), ivory was imported also from punt and Syria, carved into rings and scarabs and used as materials for inlays.
Iwntyw-Seti
They were a Nubian (modern sudanese) people, called “the Troglodytes” in Egyptian records, and inhabiting a site called “the Holy Mountain” at gebel barkal near the fourth cataract of the Nile. The Holy Mountain contained a rock formation in the shape of a wadjet, a cobra. The barbarians faced an Egyptian army led by ‘ahmose (r. 1550-1525 b.c.e.) and a second assault by amenhotep I (r. 1525-1504 b.c.e.). Amenhotep I caused the Nubians to flee to Khnemetheru, a site called the “Highest Well,” located in the desert. The Egyptians built a fort at Gebel Barkal and started trade with the region. tuthmosis i (r. 1504-1492 b.c.e.) attacked again at an area between the fourth and fifth cataracts. He left a stela at kurgus to commemorate his victories.
Iymery (Iumeri) (fl. 24th century b.c.e.)
Royal scribe and mortuary official of the Fifth Dynasty He served niuserre (Izi) (r. 2416-2392 b.c.e.) as a royal scribe in the archives of the court. Iymery rose through the ranks of the court and became a steward of royal lands. He ended his career as a prophet of the mortuary cult of khufu (Cheops), conducted at the Great Pyramid in giza. Iymery’s tomb at Giza contained elaborate reliefs and paintings of processions, banquets, agricultural scenes, and various industries.
Izezi (Djedkare) (d. 2356 b.c.e.)
Eighth ruler of the Fifth Dynasty
He reigned from 2388 b.c.e. until his death. He adopted the god re as his patron and honored the sage ptahhotep (2). Izezi exploited Egypt’s natural resources, using the quarries and mines at wadi hammamat and the sinai. His name was also inscribed at wadi maghara and wadi halfa, and he is listed in the turin canon. Izezi mined at abu simbel as well and sent trade expeditions to byblos and punt. A royal son, re’emkuy, was the designated heir but died before he could assume the throne.
Izezi ruled for more than 30 years and celebrated his HEB-SED. During his reign, the viziers and nobles became powerful. izezi was buried in a pyramid with a mortuary temple at southern saqqara, and his queens were interred nearby. His tomb has fine reliefs and a black basalt sarcophagus, demolished by thieves.
jackal
This animal, called auau or a’asha, was associated with mortuary rituals and the cults of the gods anubis and duamutef. The jackal was viewed as a strong, cunning, and persistent hunter and was also known to destroy early Egyptian gravesites. The dog and the wolf were both revered. Anubis is depicted as a jackal in mortuary reliefs, and priests wore jackal masks in ceremonies. Duamutef, one of the Sons of Horus serving as guardians of the vital organs of the deceased, was illustrated as a jackal’s head on the canopic jars. The jackal cult had its origins in the area of abydos early in Egyptian history. The pyramid texts of the Old Kingdom Period (2575-2134 b.c.e.) attested that a dead pharaoh would assume the face of a jackal. in time the jackal was called khentiamentiu, “the Prince or Lord of the West,” or “the Prince of the Divine Hall.” osiris assumed these titles when his cult achieved national prominence.
Joppa
This was a site on the coast of southern Israel located at modern Tel Aviv-Yafo. djehuti, a trusted Egyptian officer of tuthmosis iii (r. 1479-1425 b.c.e.), took over the ancient city of joppa. This officer used a ruse that has become a plot element in literature. The event was celebrated in Egypt and recorded in the Harris papyrus 500, now in the British Museum in London. This military deceit was also transformed into an Arabic tale of later centuries.
According to this literary tradition, Djehuti met with an official of joppa outside the city gates and declared that he and his family hoped to defect to joppa and the Hurrian troops that served as the city’s allies. The joppa official was thrilled to hear of the proposed defection and anticipated caravans of loot and spoils of war that
Djehuti promised to deliver. He also allowed a unit of Egyptian cavalry to enter the city, followed by troops and donkeys carrying more than 200 baskets. once inside the gates of Joppa, the fully armed Egyptian soldiers leaped from the baskets, and the charioteers and escort troops joined in taking the defenseless city. Djehuti was able to send an immediate message of victory to Tuthmo-sis III.
Djehuti was buried on the western shore of Thebes, and his mortuary regalia is now on display in various European collections. The best known of these grave objects, a golden bowl, is in the Louvre in Paris. The capture of joppa was retold in the story of “Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves” in the Tales of the Arabian Nights. The story of the Trojan Horse in the later Greek epic is also similar.
Judgment
Halls of Osiris Also called the Judgment Halls of the Dead, a mythical site located in the tuat, or Underworld, the destination of all Egyptians beyond the grave. osiris, as the Lord of the Underworld, sat in judgment of all souls, aided by the goddess ma’at, the forty-two judges, and other mortuary deities. The site and the rituals of the halls are depicted in various mortuary papyri. In some of these papyri, the site is called “the Hall of the Two Ma’at Goddesses.” When the goddess Ma’at was in attendance at these judgments of the deceased, she often appeared in double form, hence the name. The entrance to the area was called Kersek-shu, and the entire edifice was in the shape of a coffin. Two pools were normally included in the setting, both of which were mentioned in various versions of the topic of the dead in the New Kingdom (1550-1070 b.c.e.) and later.
osiris,
accompanied by the Forty-two judges, demon-like creatures, reviewed the lives of the deceased Egyptians and absolved them or condemned them. Mortuary texts and the priests provided the deceased with the Declarations of Innocence, also known as the negative confessions. The names of the individual Forty-two judges were provided to the deceased by priests as well, so that the corpse could effectively plead its case. in addition, amulets, spells, and incantations were also available.
The deceased who appeared before the Forty-two judges and osiris understood the guiding principles of the ritual. The dead whose good deeds outweighed evil were deemed pure and eligible to enter amenti, the western paradise. Those who had committed equally good and bad deeds were allowed to become part of the retinue of osiris in many forms. The deceased who had committed more evil deeds than good were given to AMEMAiT,the fabulous beast that dined not only on their flesh but also on their souls. This last fate was the most dreaded because it resulted in total annihilation.
Gigantic scales were present in the hall, and there divine beings helped thoth in keeping an account of the deceased’s heart, which determined his or her worthiness to enter the realms of eternal bliss. While the weighing of the heart took place, the corpse addressed a series of prayers and commands to its heart and recited various mortuary formulas. The effort resulted in an exact balance between the heart and the Feather of Ma’at, the symbol of righteousness.
A Spirit Boat, the vessel used to ferry the dead Egyptians to the paradise of eternity after being found worthy in the Judgment Halls of Osiris.
Additional aspects of the ritual in the judgment Halls of osiris included naming of the stones and bolts of the doors, so that they could open onto the realms of eternal happiness. The deceased was then faced with performing bargaining rituals with the ferryman, who rowed the dead to the domain of Osiris. “he-who-looks-behind-him-self,” Hraf-hef, was the ferryman, a testy individual. All of the rites conducted in the hall and in the ceremonies indicated a remarkable recognition of human free will and personal responsibility for moral actions during one’s life on earth. such recognition, however, was immediately countered by the use of magic, which the Egyptians believed would guarantee a quick passage to the eternal fields of happiness. This ritual of death and judgment remained firm in Egyptian religious beliefs, as eternity remained the goal of Egyptians throughout their history. The tribunal in the judgment Halls of osiris and its everlasting consequences were part of the framework upon which the Egyptians based their continual spiritual aspirations.
Judicial Papyrus of Turin
A text dating to the reign of ramesses III (1194-1163 b.c.e.) or soon after, this document concerns the harem conspiracy against Ramesses iii and the resulting uncovering of the judicial conspiracies in the matter. judges and high-ranking officials became embroiled in the matter during the court proceedings against Queen tiye (2), a lesser consort of Ramesses III, who wanted to put her son, PENTAWERET,on the throne instead of ramesses iv. The court officials that were mandated to investigate the matter were corrupted by Tiye and harem personnel, and the officials were subsequently investigated and punished. Tiye was probably executed, and Pentaweret and other high-ranking officials were forced to commit suicide. Lesser officials had their noses slit and were exiled.
JlCL
The ancient Egyptian term for a spiritual essence that existed alongside the human form and yet maintained individuality throughout the earthly sojourns, the ka was an astral being, yet considered the guiding force for all human life. The Egyptians recognized “the double” aspects of the ka, and in some statues the pharaohs were depicted as having an identical image at their sides. while existing with the human being during his or her mortal life, the ka was the superior power in the realms beyond the grave. The term for death was “go to one’s ka” or “Go to one’s ka in the sky.”
Kas resided in the divine beings as well, and pious Egyptians placated the kas of the gods in order to receive favors. some deities combined their kas and bas, their souls, in cosmological traditions, and they entered as guardians of places at the same time. osiris was always called the ka of the pyramids. The ka entered eternity before its human host, having served its purpose by walking at the human’s side on earth to urge kindness, quietude, honor, and compassion. Throughout the life of the human, the ka was the conscience, the guardian, the guide. After death, however, the ka became supreme. Rulers thus laid claim to multiple kas. ramesses ii (r. 1290-1224 b.c.e.) of the Nineteenth Dynasty declared that he had more than 20 such astral beings at his side.
The ka was also viewed as part of the divine essence that nurtured all existence on the earth and in the heavens. khnum, the god who molded mankind from clay in each generation, was depicted on many occasions as forming identical figures on his pottery wheel—one, the human, and the other the ka, which was the vital element of eternal life in Egyptian beliefs. For this reason, the BA was supposed to stay close beside the ka in the grave. The rituals of embalming were performed in order to prepare the corpse for the arrival of the ka, as well as for resurrection. The ka came to visit the mummy of the deceased, and the union of the ba and the ka forms the a’akh in death. For those commoners who could not afford the elaborate embalming processes, simple statues of themselves in the mummified form were provided by the mortuary priests. such statues were supposed to attract the kas to their gravesites. The ka assimilated the life force of all mortuary offerings presented to the deceased in the tomb and put them to use in the tuat, or the afterlife. See also reserve heads.
Ka (fl. before 3000 b.c.e.)
Predynastic ruler of Egypt His reign remains obscure and legendary and is listed as taking place before the campaigns of the first unifier of Egypt, narmer. Ka was probably a Thinite warrior who campaigned militarily against the local Delta holdings. He was buried in abydos and honored as a soul of nekhen by later generations of Egyptians.
Ka’aper statue
This is a rare wooden life-sized statue of an ancient Egyptian official discovered in a mastaba tomb at saqqara. Ka’aper was a high priest and lector in a Memphite temple, serving menkaure (r. 2490-2472 b.c.e.), and his career probably continued in the reign of niuserre (r. 2416-2392), as Ka’aper lived a long time. His wooden statue, made out of sycamore, had inlaid eyes, rimmed in copper. The whites of the eyes were fashioned out of opaque quartz, with corners of rock crystals and pupils composed of black resin. The statue depicts a thickset man in a straight skirt, holding a SEKHEM (2)scepter. when the Ka’aper statue was taken out of the mastaba, the modern Egyptian workmen on the site announced that it was a portrait of Sheikh el-Beled, their local mayor. A second statue depicting Ka’aper as a young man was also found in saqqara.
Kadesh
A city-state near Lake Homs in modern Syria, commanding the upper valley of the Orontes River, it was the key to the massive trade route to Asia, stretching between the Lebanon land ridges to the Euphrates River and Assyrian domains. In the reign of tuthmosis iii (1479-1425 b.c.e.), Kadesh rebelled against Egyptian domination and gathered an army of allies at ar-megiddo on Mount carmel’s northern slope. Tuthmosis iii led his army across Mount Carmel, single file, and came down behind the enemy.
When the foe entered the Ar-Megiddo fortress, Tuth-mosis erected a siege wall and starved the besieged. Kadesh’s ruler, however, escaped, and Tuthmosis had to campaign again and again in order to put an end to the rebellion. The city-state had water defenses composed of a moat and a canal. ramesses ii (r. 1290-1224 b.c.e.) would also campaign against Kadesh.
Kadesh, Battle of A famous confrontation between ramesses ii (r. 1290-1224 b.c.e.) and muwatallis of the hittites, taking place c. 1285 b.c.e. on the Orontes River in modern Syria, the battle was recounted in 10 inscriptions, including a poetic form, bulletins, and reliefs on temple walls. Ramesses ii marched out of Egypt on the ninth day of the second month of summer, stopping at Tjel, an Egyptian outpost. He had the Regiment of Amun, as well as three other major units with him, and the Sher-den infantry, composing a force of 20,000 men. Reaching Ramesses-Meryamen, an Egyptian fortress in the Valley of the Cedars in modern Lebanon, Ramesses II saw no sign of the Hittites. Tricked by two “Shoshu,” Hittite spies posing as local inhabitants, Ramesses II stretched his forces 30 miles into the enemy territory, divided his forces, and then made camp. When Muwatallis began a series of raids and ambushes, Ramesses II beat the “shoshu” and received confirmation of the Hittite trap and his peril.
The Hittites reportedly had 3,500 chariots, manned by three men each, and an infantry of 18,000 to 19,000 with auxiliary units and escorts totaling 47,500. Ramesses II, becoming alarmed, sent for the Regiment of ptah and scolded his officers for their laxity in assessing the situation. While this was happening, however, the Hittites were cutting their way through the Regiment of Re, sealing the trap. Hundreds of Egyptians began to arrive at Ramesses ii’s camp in headlong flight. The Hit-tite cavalry was close behind, followed by some 2,500 chariots. The Regiment of Amun was almost overwhelmed by the panicking soldiers who had suffered the first losses in the battle. The unit therefore raced northward in the same disorder.
Undaunted, Ramesses II brought calm and purpose to his small units and began to slice his way through the enemy in order to reach his southern forces. With only his household troops, a few officers, and followers, and with the rabble of the defeated units standing by, he mounted his chariot and discovered the extent of the forces against him. His chariot was drawn by his favorite horses, “Victory of Thebes” and “Mut Is Content,” and he charged the east wing of the assembled force with such ferocity that they gave way, allowing the Egyptians to escape the net that Muwatallis had cast for them. The Hittite king watched the cream of his command fall before Ramesses II, including his own brother. The Hittites and their allies were being driven into the river, where they drowned.
Within the abandoned Egyptian camp, the enemy soldiers were looting, and they were surprised by a group of Ramesses ii’s soldiers and slain. Ramesses ii gathered up the victorious unit, determined to stand his ground until reinforcements arrived. The Hittite king, in turn, threw his reserves of 1,000 chariots into the fray, but he was unable to score against Ramesses ii and his men. Then the banners and totems of the Regiment of ptah came into sight and both camps knew that the Egyptian reinforcements had arrived. The Hittite cavalry was driven into the city, with terrible losses, and Muwatallis withdrew. Ramesses II did not capture Kadesh, and Muwatallis claimed a Hittite victory and the acquisition of the city of Apa (modern Damascus). Ramesses II claimed victory and executed all of the Egyptians who had not rushed to his aid. This battle would not end the conflicts between Egypt and the Hittites. Almost two decades of confrontations finally led to the Egyptian Hit-tite Treaty.
