Introduction
When a body is discovered, one of the first considerations will be to decide whether the death is suspicious or overtly homicidal in nature or otherwise requiring special consideration such as a death in custody. In the majority of cases, the decision as to whether or not criminality is involved is reasonably straightforward. However, one should appreciate that there are many instances where the initial appearance is deceptive and it is therefore essential that all scenes be treated as suspicious until a full assessment is made.
Comprehensive examination of the place of discovery of the body - the scene – together with the collection of all relevant samples and their examination, will facilitate the investigator’s quest to accurately establish the circumstances surrounding the death in question.
Definition
A scene of death is the place where a person has died. It should not be confused with where the body is discovered. It is not unusual for someone to have been
killed at one locus and then deposited elsewhere. It becomes further complicated by the fact that an actual incident leading to death, i.e. stabbing, may have occurred in an entirely different location from where death occurred. Most commonly, however, the place where the person is killed is the same as where the body is found (see Table 1).
Different Types of Scenes
The type of environment where the body is found will dictate the approach taken. Scenes may also be categorized by the type of death and/or method of disposal.
Indoors
Finding a body in a domestic environment is common and the vast majority of deaths are due to natural causes. Sadly many of those found are elderly or infirm people living alone and found some time after death. It is essential to establish the identity of the person and whether or not they lived in the house in which they are found. The room in which the deceased is found will also be important. For example, someone found collapsed in the toilet may well have died suddenly of a pulmonary thromboembolism or from gastrointestinal bleeding. The position of the body, considered together with the type of room, will frequently assist in assessing whether or not death is due to natural or unnatural causes. Disturbance in a room may well indicate that there has been some type of struggle and the death may, therefore, have resulted from this. Finding the body in an unusual location within premises, such as a garage or a cupboard will alert suspicion. One should also bear in mind that pets that are confined in rooms with their dead owner, as well as rodents and other scavengers, may eat away at the soft tissues.
Outdoors
Surface The usual method of discovery of a person found out of doors, e.g. in a field, is accidentally by a member of the public for example while exercising the dog. The question of whether the person has died at the scene or elsewhere and transported to the locus will need to be considered. The discovery of a body by the seashore will pose the question of whether the deceased had fallen into the sea and been washed ashore or fallen or in some other way and landed in the water from a vessel. Postmortem damage from animals and relocation of body parts may also sometimes be a feature of bodies found out of doors. Occasionally deaths due to hypothermia in outdoor environments, where there has been paradoxical undressing, will need careful consideration.
Table 1 The scene of discovery of the body in 634 cases
| Scene of. | % | |||
| Incident | Death | Discovery | n | |
| Same | Same | Same | 471 | 74 |
| Different | Same | Same | 123 | 20 |
| Same | Same | Different | 36 | 6 |
Burials and partially concealed remains In some instances the investigation begins with a search for a grave, where information is available regarding its possible existence. There are various techniques available, including the use of aerial photography and the occasional use of an infrared thermal camera, geophysical techniques (well established in the field of archaeology) and trained dogs. Bodies may be partially or fully buried in a number of situations which include: clandestine single graves, multiple graves containing a small number of individuals, e.g. from one family, and mass graves, e.g. those resulting from genocide. Recovery of remains in burials will require the combined efforts of the forensic team, with the forensic anthropologist, archeologist and pathologist all having a prominent role.
Water
Bodies recovered from water tend to decompose slower than those found in air except where the water is heavily polluted. Adipocere is a common feature of bodies found in damp conditions. The investigator will need to assess where the body had entered the water in relation to where the body was recovered.
Scene Management
Management of the scene comprises the following essential components:
1. Searching for a body (if applicable)
2. Discovery of a body and preliminary assessment
3. Appointing an investigating officer and forming a scene team, including relevant specialists
4. Briefing before and/or after visit to the scene
5. Health and safety considerations
6. Scene assessment and collection of evidence
7. Retrospective scene visit(s)
It is essential that the senior investigating officer forms a team to examine the scene. The members of the team will comprise the senior investigating officer or equivalent (depending on jurisdiction), other relevant criminal investigation officers, uniformed officers to secure the scene, specialist scene of crime officer, photographer, various forensic scientists (types of specialties will depend on the type of scene), forensic pathologist, police surgeon and other helpers or experts depending on the circumstances.
The forensic team in assessing a scene will need to consider the following:
1. Location: whether dwelling house or other closed environment, outdoor site, burial, water etc.
2. Type of incident which will require specialist expertise: fires, explosions, firearms, industrial and transportation accidents, discovery of skeletal remains.
3. Number of deceased persons: most scenes involve one body. Other situations may involve serial killings (one or more scenes), a mass disaster or a mass grave.
4. Health and safety considerations: especially relevant in scenes involving fires; where there may be noxious substances; booby traps in explosion scenes; inaccessible and dangerous terrain; possible risk of infection.
5. Urgency of the examination in relation to site and circumstances: the location of the body may necessitate removal at the earliest opportunity; for example a body found by the seashore where the tidal movement may submerge the body or on a busy road or other environment where obstruction to public facilities for longer than necessary is undesirable.
6. Climatic conditions: the weather conditions at the scene, particularly if adverse, may dictate early removal to the mortuary or the erection of a tent for protection. Furthermore, early removal, and refrigeration, particularly in a hot environment is essential to prevent rapid decomposition.
7. Available resources and expertise: these will vary depending on various factors. Cost effectiveness can be achieved with good organization, careful preparation and good liaison between team members.
8. Security: it is important to establish the boundary of the scene, secure it and ensure that only authorized personnel are allowed within the boundary. All unauthorized persons must be kept away from a scene in order to prevent:
(a) Contamination of the scene
(b) The media from obtaining unauthorized information
(c) Interference from curious onlookers, souvenir hunters and others who may potentially disrupt the work of the forensic team.
Collection of Evidence
The task of the forensic investigator is to find traces left behind, such as fingerprints, bloodstains, fibers from clothing, dirt from shoes etc. and to locate matching materials on a suspect in order to provide objective evidence that they were present at the scene. The fundamental guiding principle which underlies the approach to any scene examination is attributable to Edmond Locard. He coined his ‘theory of interchange’ which in essence states; ‘that the person or persons at the scene when a crime is committed will almost always leave something and take something away’. This doctrine of exchange or transfer is thus based on the observations that:
1. The perpetrator will take away traces of the victim and the scene;
2. The victim will retain traces of the perpetrator and may leave traces of himself on the perpetrator;
3. The perpetrator will leave behind traces of himself at the scene.
Documentation of the Scene
The scene must be documented in a systematic and thorough manner so that an accurate record is available for presentation as evidence. There are a number of ways in which the scene is documented.
‘Stills’ photography
It is essential that stills photography should be of the highest quality in order to provide an accurate permanent record of the scene. Photographs should be taken, working from the periphery of the scene through to the area where the body is sited. It is also necessary to photograph early before evidence is altered, e.g. footwear impressions, or before the body is moved. Photography can be taken of all the stages of the scene examination as necessary.
Notes, sketches and plans
These provide the examiner with an ‘aide memoire’ for assistance with the preparation of statements. They should be legible and should be signed and dated.
Video recording
This should cover the whole scene showing the relationship of surfaces and objects to each other. Although still images can be produced from video frames, quality is not as good as good quality conventional photography. The use of commentary at the time of the recording may also be used to explain visual images seen and be employed as an instructional device.
Computer reconstruction
Computerized aids may have a role to play in both presentation of evidence and reconstruction of the incident, e.g. in a vehicular accident. These are either site survey packages (incorporating computer aided design (CAD) systems) or portable plan drawing systems packages.
Role of Forensic Medical Practitioners at the Scene
Certifying death
Prior to the arrival of the pathologist, in the UK a police surgeon will attend and certify death. The doctor may also give the police his views as to criminality. However, this is not frequently possible because of the preference for the body not to be moved until the pathologist attends.
Initial attendance of the pathologist
When the forensic pathologist first arrives at the scene it is important to make an initial general assessment of the environment and the body within it. At this stage the pathologist will be guided by the senior investigating officer regarding which route should be taken to the body, bearing in mind the need to prevent contamination as well as safety considerations where applicable. The approach to the scene by the pathologist will vary according to the type of scene and the environment. For example retrieving a body from a shallow grave involves an entirely different strategy from dealing with the discovery of a fresh body in a public place. The pathologist will be appraised of the circumstances surrounding the discovery of the body and an initial view will usually be sought. However, although the pathologist may be able to give valuable guidance at an early stage one must exercise caution, mindful of the fact that at an early stage of any investigation, accounts of circumstances leading to death may be confused and inaccurate.
The position of body and its condition
It is crucial for the pathologist to carefully document the position of the body and to ascertain whether it had been moved and the reasons for doing so, prior to his/her attendance. There are a number of reasons why a body may be moved from its initial position. These include movement by someone, e.g. a relative, to see if the person is still alive; for resuscitation; to collect essential evidence that could be lost or contaminated; to secure the safety of the scene.
Examination of clothing
The presence and type of clothing as well as how it is worn and arranged on the body should be assessed. There may be various contaminants such as bloodstains, semen, saliva, paint smears, glass which needs to be looked for and collected where appropriate. The clothing may also show characteristic damage from cutting implements such as knives or from firearms or it may be torn during a fight for example. Such damage will yield valuable information which should be carefully assessed in conjunction with the body and its environment. For example the distribution of blood stains on clothing may assist the examiner to ascertain whether the victim was attacked while standing or lying down. Tears in clothing from stabbing will assist in assessing number of impacts and type and size of knife. In sexual assualt cases the clothing is frequently dishevelled, torn or some garments may be missing. It should be emphasized that a detailed examination of the clothing should be carried out in the autopsy suite to avoid undue disturbance of the body.
Associated signs such as bloodstains, drag marks various objects including furnishings
The immediate environment of the body and, where appropriate, other locations, for example a nearby room, should be examined to assess disturbance of furniture and other objects. This will allow an assessment to be made of the degree of struggle between two persons and whether any objects could have been used as weapons or whether the deceased may have impacted against furniture, floors etc. to cause the injuries seen. The presence of drag marks on floors caused by moving the body may be seen as smeared blood or dirt and there should be corresponding evidence on the body. The position of bloodstains, whether droplets, cast off stains from weapons or from arterial spurts should all be noted in relation to the position of the body.
Time of death assessment
Frequently, it is important to make an assessment of how long the person has been dead (postmortem interval: time of death). This is not an easy matter, but the pathologist can give useful guidelines as to the approximate time depending on the state of the body, the climatic conditions and the type of environment. Nevertheless, an estimation of time of death in certain circumstances may be both futile and misleading. This is particularly so if the body had been moved between different types of environments, e.g. indoor to outdoor, or been placed in cold storage before disposal, or been subjected to heat as in disposal by fire. Details of how time of death is estimated is discussed elsewhere but it is important to consider the core body and ambient temperature, rigor mortis, hypostasis and general state of the body, including the effect of insect action when assessment is made. In any case where a rectal thermometer is inserted to obtain a core temperature, it is essential to remove and preserve the relevant undergarments and take all genital swabs prior to insertion of the thermometer. It should be appreciated that the ambient temperature may have fluctuated appreciably between when the body was first at the scene till its discovery. For example where a house is centrally heated, the temperature of the room in question may vary according to the timings at which the heating is set. An open window may also make a substantial difference to the temperature. It is also important to test for rigor mortis at the scene as this may disappear on arrival at the mortuary, particularly in hot climates where rigor is known to appear and disappear early. Hypos-tasis may also be useful in noting its extent, i.e. whether the body has been dead sufficiently long for it to be established. However, this phenomenon is of more use in assisting the pathologist in assessing whether the body has been in one position at the scene or whether at some stage prior to discovery, the body had been moved. Signs of putrefaction should also be carefully assessed as well as any insects found on the body as these findings will all be useful in allowing an overall assessment of the time of death to be made.
Taking samples
It is essential to take samples at the scene in a number of circumstances particularly where movement of the body or removal of clothing may cause contamination. Wherever possible, particularly in sexual assault cases it is recommended that the body is swabbed externally over the trunk, thighs and wherever else relevant, as well as taking swabs from the usual orifices. It is preferable, once the essential swabs have been taken, to leave nail clippings, hair samples and other samples to be taken in the autopsy suite.
Interpretation of the postmortem findings in relation to scene assessment
The pathologist should always conduct the autopsy bearing in mind the findings at the scene and whether injuries for example can be accounted for by the scene environment. In a number of cases it may be necessary to carry out a further visit to the scene in the light of autopsy findings. In cases where there was no opportunity to visit the scene where the incident was said to have occurred, e.g. in the vast majority of fatal ‘battered child’ cases, the pathologist may be requested to visit the scene and assess whether various explanations given by the parents or guardians are plausible.
Role of the Forensic Scientist and Scene of Crime Officer
The main concern of the scientist and scene-of-crime officer is the proper collection and preservation of evidence.
Care must be taken as to how the body is handled and moved from its site of initial discovery, as moving the body can lose or confuse evidence – particles fall off, blood swilling washes off materials etc. In sexual assault murders, moving the body can redistribute body fluids which can lead to erroneous conclusions. For example, semen can trickle into the anal passage of a victim and give the impression of attempted buggery.
When the body is not present, it can be difficult to interpret blood distribution patterns or assess particles from under or alongside the body. Therefore, it is always better for the ‘team’ to attend when the body is in situ. Discussion between the various team members will then allow decisions to be made on the order of examination. It is essential to remember that examining the body means entering, and disturbing the scene.
Examination of the body and clothing by the forensic scientist is essential for the identification of traces of marks which may have:
1. Come from an object, e.g. paint smears or glass particles left by a car involved in a fatal hit-and-run accident;
2. Been transferred to an object (Locard’s principle, see above), e.g. blood, hair, fibers and fabric marks could be transferred from the body to the car;
3. Come from the person who carried out the attack, e.g. bloodstains, semen in rape cases, shoe prints found on the body or on the clothing and fibers transferred from the assailant’s clothing. Particular attention should be directed to sites of attack and defense, e.g. fingernails, hands, forearms and face;
4. Come from another scene, e.g. paint fragments or fibers retained on the body which relate to a different venue from where body found.
Removal from the Scene to the Mortuary Preparation for removal
One of the main difficulties encountered in preparing a body for removal from a scene is to prevent contamination from three main sources: the scene; one part of the body to another; all personnel handling the body. It is necessary therefore to place bags on the hands, head and feet and to place the body in a bag with as little disturbance as possible and in the same orientation. For example a body that is found in a prone position should be placed in a bag in the same position. Any visible loose materials should have been collected from the body prior to removal. Where the body is in an advanced state of decomposition care should be taken that tissue or indeed parts of the body are not separated or modified in some way when the body is secured for removal.
Removal and transit to the mortuary
The removal and transit of the body from the scene to the mortuary may give rise to further problems if due care is not taken. Sometimes if the scene is in a confined space it may be difficult to remove the body without it coming into contact with surfaces such as stairs, walls or doors. The pathologist must therefore be aware of the possibility of postmortem injuries caused by removal in such circumstances.
Reception into the mortuary
Once the body arrives at the mortuary it is important to bear in mind that the body should remain in its bag until the pathologist starts the examination. It may be practical to place the body in a chill refrigerator at about 4°C until the pathologist arrives if there is likely to be an appreciable interval between reception at the mortuary and the autopsy. If time of death is an issue, then the body should be kept at room temperature for further core temperatures to be taken should these prove necessary.
