Introduction
This article will introduce the reader to the basic techniques used in the recovery of human remains. It is not intended to be all inclusive, but may provide insight into unique aspects of recovering remains suspected to be human. Physical evidence, testimonial evidence, search techniques, surface recoveries, excavations and exhumations will be discussed. Recommendations to maximize the amount of information obtainable by a forensic anthropologist will also be presented.
Recovering human remains that are buried and/or badly decomposed or skeletonized is the same as any other death investigation, with the four basic types of manner of death (homicide, suicide, accidental and natural) possible. The only difference between ‘normal’ death investigations and recovery scenes is the amount of decomposition, the disarticulation of the bones, and the unusual environments within which we must work. As in all death investigations, recovery of human remains is a team effort. The combined talents of several people, each a specialist in his or her own area of expertise, is required. All law enforcement officials involved have specific responsibilities. Meeting these responsibilities often impacts the efforts of others.
Although a crime scene can be handled in numerous ways, and each case may dictate a different approach, experience has proved certain guidelines to be advantageous. The following are suggestions for consideration in any death investigation.
First officer on the scene
• Render aid if needed.
• Protect the scene; this includes prevention of possible contamination by keeping other police personnel from entering the crime scene.
• Secure witnesses and keep them separated.
• Take immediate notes because the scene will continually change.
• Request the services of a crime scene technician, the coroner and investigators. If required by policy, notify the state’s attorney’s office.
• Condense all facts into a comprehensive report.
Crime scene technician
• Locate and identify physical evidence at the scene.
• Process the crime scene, attend the autopsy and take custody of all physical evidence.
• Package and transport all physical evidence to the appropriate crime laboratory.
• Prepare a comprehensive report.
Coroner/medical examiner
• Give direction to the pathologist.
• Determine the cause and manner of death. Request assistance from the crime scene technician if needed.
• Establish a close line of communication between the coroner’s office, crime scene personnel and investigators.
Pathologist
• Obtain all physical evidence from the victim’s body. If all pertinent information and evidence are recovered from the body, there should be no need to exhume the body. Items such as a knife tip broken off inside the body can be used for laboratory comparison if the knife is recovered.
• Communicate with the coroner and the crime scene personnel at the autopsy.
• Consult with a forensic anthropologist.
Investigator
• Gather all possible information from the first officer on the scene, any witnesses, the crime scene technician, the pathologist, the anthropologist and the coroner.
• Authorize one person to release information and maintain continuity throughout the investigation. Information released without thought to investigative leads or case prosecution may jeopardize successful resolution and prosecution of the case.
• With the state’s attorney’s (or prosecutor’s) office, determine the value of lead information and the direction of the investigation. The state’s attorneys office and the investigator will be charged with the long-term aspect of the investigation and the ultimate prosecution of the case.
Thorough investigation of a crime must be a joint effort, otherwise the citizens are underserved. If each individual completes his or her portion of the process, the outcome will yield the most effective results.
Scene Processing Procedures
In processing a ‘normal’ death scene, primary and secondary areas of the crime scene are identified. The primary area represents the location of the body, while the secondary area is the area(s) leading to the crime scene. For instance, if a body is found in the middle of a room, the primary area of the crime scene is in that room and is consequently well defined by the walls, floors and ceiling. The secondary area represents all avenues to the room, including the outside yard. How did the suspect(s) enter and leave the scene? Did he or she drive to the scene? Answers to these questions define the secondary areas of the crime scene.
If the crime scene is an outdoor scene with a body lying in an open field, what are the dimensions of the scene? Answering this question is problematic to most. The primary scene is represented by the area closest to the body, while the secondary scene is the surrounding access area. The body didn’t just fall out of the sky and land there. Someone used a vehicle to transport the body there, or carried it to that spot. Therefore, prime physical evidence leading up to the body, e.g. tire tracks, footwear prints, drag marks, etc., may be present.
Unfortunately, whenever there is a body in a field or any open space, walking in a straight line right to the body, ignoring the evidence on the way, is a natural tendency. We seem to lose sight of the dimensions to the scene. To correct this tendency, identify a least likely point of entry to the body and approach this way. Open your eyes and look for evidence in the path the perpetrator most likely used, it’s going to be there!
Two types of evidence, physical and testimonial, are possible at all crime scenes. In general, physical evidence is anything that can be held; testimonial evidence is what can be testified to in the reconstruction of the crime scene. One form of evidence is just as important as the other.
Death investigation scenes are processed to prove whether a crime was committed and provide clues to who may have committed the crime. Determining the identity of the deceased is an added problem that arises in cases involving human remains which are buried and/or badly decomposed or skeletonized. Current procedures for identifying the deceased are by finger-, palm- or footprints, DNA, dental charts and X-rays, comparison X-rays of old injuries and deformities of the deceased, measurement of the bones of the skeleton to determine approximate age and height, existence of physical deformities, such as missing fingers, etc., and tattoos. Facial reconstruction by a forensic sculptor/artist or an anthropologist can also be attempted. A likeness of the victim is created and circulated in local, state and regional newspapers. This likeness may be recognized and open new leads as to the identity of the victim. All new leads are then confirmed using the traditional methods of positive identification discussed above. The victim’s personal identification might also be found on the body. Even in this situation, the identity of the individual must be confirmed using traditional identification methodology.
What are the normal procedures in processing a death scene? The following chain of procedures is recommended:
1. Interview, gather and verify information.
2. Examine: examine and evaluate the crime scene.
3. Photograph: photograph the crime scene.
4. Sketch: sketch the crime scene.
5. Process: process the crime scene.
A scene that involves the recovery of buried and/or decomposed or skeletonized human remains is no different from any other crime scene investigation. There is still a scene, a victim and a suspect. As with all other types of scenes, examining and processing the scene for physical evidence is required.
What is physical evidence? The best definition available is:
Wherever he steps, whatever he touches, whatever he leaves, even unconsciously, will serve as silent witness against him. Not only his fingerprints or his footprints, but his hair, the fibers from his clothes, the glass he breaks, the tool mark he leaves, the paint he scratches, the blood or semen he deposits or collects – all of these and more bear mute witness against him. This is evidence that does not forget. It is not confused by the excitement of the moment. It is not absent because human witnesses are, it is factual evidence, physical evidence cannot be wrong; it cannot perjure itself; it cannot be wholly absent, only its interpretation can err. Only human failure to find it, study and understand it, can diminish its value. (Harris v. United States, 331 US 145, 1947)
The only thing that has changed since 1947 is the interpretation of the evidence and the ability of forensic science technology to identify potential evidence. Today, more in-depth analysis of the evidence is possible. In addition, crime scene investigators are better educated and trained to collect and preserve evidence and have more advanced equipment, which increases the likelihood of identifying and recovering significant physical evidence.
What types of physical evidence can be found at a recoverysite? The possibilities are endless. Factors that can change or diminish the value of the evidence are time since death, weather conditions and contamination by others (including investigators).
Surface recoveries and excavations are processed in the same manner as any other crime scene. Physical evidence is present and must be identified. The same processing techniques are used: interview, examine, photograph, sketch and process. There is no reason to rush and do a sloppy or substandard job. This is one of the few cases in which time is on your side!
Search Techniques for Human Remains
The primary event in the recovery of human remains is finding the body. Most remains are found by accident. In the Midwest and South of the United States a majority of the remains are found in the fall or spring by hunters, farmers working their fields, or others such as hikers in the woods and construction workers performing excavations at job sites. Sometimes remains will be found incident to searching an area specified by investigative leads or informants. Once the remains are found, define the primary area of recovery. Don’t forget the secondary area(s)!
Prior to searching an area, the information received must be verified. Nothing will make supervisors un-happier than going on a wild goose chase, depleting financial and human resources. Wild goose chases are also emotionally difficult for the family of the victim.
Once the search area is defined and the information verified, personnel and equipment needs must be evaluated. A team must be established. A ‘team leader’, searchers and crime scene specialists to handle the photography, sketching, collection of evidence and the recovery of the remains are key team members. A detailed map of the area in question and aerial photos to show the layout of the search scene may be available and should be obtained. It is suggested that someone familiar with the terrain also be contacted to provide an insight into problems which may be encountered, such as identifying any changes made to the area which are not documented.
Comfort conditions must also be taken into account by the person in charge of the search or recovery site. Weather conditions and provision of food for the workers, bathroom facilities, as well as liquids to drink and water for cleaning up, must be considered in planning decisions.
Once the area has been evaluated and a team is established, the object of the search and how to look for it must be communicated to the team. Do not assume that they know what to do. Have a meeting prior to the search and explain in detail the objective of the search.
Normal field search methods are used for all outdoor crime scenes. The following four methods, or a variation of them, are used in searching outdoor areas for the recovery of human remains:
• Grid The area is sectioned off in a grid with the searchers in one area of the grid at a time. This method is normally used when the area is quite large, such as several acres of land. Each area of the grid is then searched by circle, strip or zone.
• Circle This consists of a center stake with a rope tied to it, with the searchers at 1.5 m intervals circling around the center in a straight line. This method is not frequently used but can be effective with large areas and several searchers.
• Strip This consists of a line of searchers approximately at arm’s length away from each other in a straight line walking through the area to be searched. Using barrier tape to define the strips will help.
• Zone This is similar to the grid search except that it is normally used in smaller areas to be searched or a portion of the grid. The zone is then searched with the strip method.
The method selected will depend entirely on the terrain to be searched and the number of people available. The area should always be searched twice but not by the same person. A second person may find what the first person missed.
When using any of the search techniques, if one of the searchers finds an item, the whole team should stop until the item found can be photographed, the location sketched, and the item collected and marked for further examination later. After the item is marked or collected the searchers can continue until another item is located. This process is continued until the search of the entire area is completed.
Another method to consider is use of trained dogs. Some dogs are trained for recovering items of evidence in the field, while others are trained for finding deceased bodies. Different methods are used in the training of these dogs. Check with your local canine unit to ascertain if they can perform either function. Only dogs specifically trained for the search and recovery of human remains should be used. Dogs crosstrained for drugs, arsons, bombs and other items of evidence are not as productive as those specifically trained for recovery sites.
Looking for buried remains requires the use of the same search methods as for surface recoveries, but different search indicators are utilized. As a result, it is imperative that searchers are educated as to the different types of possible burial indicators. Because of time and weather elements, burial indicators may be difficult to find. Which indicators are expected will vary depending upon the type of terrain being searched. Remember that you may be looking for pieces of a body, which could mean multiple burial sites, rather than one large burial site.
Disturbed vegetation, soil compaction and soil disturbance are some of the indicators of a burial site. Multiple indicators may be present at any site. These indicators are discussed below.
Disturbed vegetation Whenever a hole is dug in the ground, the vegetation in and around the hole is disturbed. This vegetation will no longer remain as it originally was. It may be upside down, with the roots showing, or just brown from being uprooted. Adjoining areas, disturbed during digging, will also show signs of vegetation disturbance. In a wooded area, a small clearing in the trees may indicate a burial site.
Soil compaction The natural decomposition of the buried remains will leave a void in the soil. Through time and rain the soil above the remains will sink to fill the void, thus forming a depression in the surface above the body. This depression is sometimes called a compaction site. A secondary depression may also be noted inside the primary depression. This is caused by the abdominal cavity deteriorating. Again depending on time and weather factors, this depression may have new vegetation or even trees growing from it. New vegetation may also be a burial indicator because the new growth will not be as mature as growth in the surrounding area. There may also be visible cracks in the soil outlining the actual grave. These cracks are made when the disturbed soil shrinks from the undisturbed soil owing to the depression in the ground.
Animals can cause similar compaction by burrowing holes for nests or looking for food. Other decomposing material will also cause the same depressions. However, an area of compaction of approximately 0.5 x 2 m will usually indicate something large is buried.
Soil disturbance When a grave is dug, the layers of the soil are disturbed. The soil under the ground is layered. Some areas will have very shallow layers or multiple layers within a few centimeters from the surface, while others will have layers meters thick. At different depths, the soil will vary in color. These different colors represent the different layers of soil. For instance, black soil might be found from the surface to a depth of about 10 cm, a lighter color of soil might follow for several centimeters, with clay below. All these layers may repeat themselves or be in different orders. However, once the layers are disturbed no amount of effort and precision can replace them exactly the way mother nature put them there.
Digging not only disturbs the soil layers in the grave, but also disturbs the surface soil around the grave. There will always be some residue left after refilling a hole. The residue will be a different color from the surrounding surface soil.
Some special problem areas for visual indicators are sandy beaches, desert areas and cultivated land. Visual indicators on the surface may be difficult to find; therefore, locating a burial site in these areas will require a different approach to the problem. Several methods are currently being explored, as outlined below.
Infrared photography
This method uses the difference in temperature between the buried body and the temperature of the soil around or on top of it. Infrared photography may also indicate the difference in temperature of disturbed and undisturbed soil. Success with this method may be minimal, depending upon the length of time since the event.
Methane detector
Any organic object that is decomposing will produce methane gases. Unfortunately, the decomposing item may be a tree stump, vegetation, an animal or garbage. In addition, the longer the body has been buried, the less likely it is that methane gas can be detected. This method is therefore seldom used in the field.
Aerial photography
The comparison of aerial photographs of the suspected area taken over a period of years might disclose a possible burial site. Aerial photos could show a vegetation disturbance occurring where a body is buried. These photographs are usually taken for tax assessment purposes and are available for several years. The aerial photographs will also show what new construction has taken place during the period in question.
Probe
In using this method a four foot metal rod approximately 1 cm in diameter with a 30 cm handle forming a ‘T’ is poked into the ground. In pushing the probe into the ground, a difference in the pressure needed to push the probe into undisturbed and disturbed soil should be felt. To be more confident in detecting these differences, extensive practice should be undertaken before actually probing the suspected burial site. A ‘feel’ for this must be acquired by sampling the ground in the area. When using the probe, sample holes should be obtained every 30 cm. This method requires the searcher to use extreme caution to avoid potentially damaging the body and other possible physical evidence. To avoid such damage, a minimal amount of pressure should be used on the probe at all times. Feeling an increased resistance will be a strong indication to proceed with extreme caution or retrieve the probe. The amount of time needed to probe an area appropriately and the subsequent wear on the searcher are other drawbacks to this method.
A variation of this method is to use a similar probe with a larger, hollow shaft for taking soil samples. These soil samples are then tested for the presence of calcium (bone) that leaches into the soil from the decomposed body. However, this type of testing cannot be done on site. Samples must be sent to the laboratory for testing; therefore, if time is of the essence, this would not be the method of choice.
Construction equipment
Construction equipment should be used as a last resort, but some situations may call for it. Use experienced backhoe and bulldozer operators who are capable of removing layers of 5-30 cm at a time. When carefully done, soil disturbances, or the grave itself, may be identified. More damage to the remains can be done by this method than any other and it should therefore be used only when no other options are available.
Some of the search techniques discussed above require good old-fashioned manual labor. The best mtechnique to use will depend on the terrain, the size of the area to be searched and the resources available.
Surface Recovery
Once the search is completed and the body located, the recovery site must be defined. Extreme scattering of the bones/body parts or physical evidence by animals frequently occurs. Therefore, the area encompassing the scattered bones may range from a short distance to several meters. Some of the bones may never be found because of vast scattering or consumption by animals. Depending upon the time of year as well as length of time since death, the bones may even be covered by vegetation, dead leaves or fallen trees or branches. This covering of the deceased may also have been done intentionally by the suspect to camouflage the body.
Before approaching the remains, a general indication of the probable path of the perpetrator must be established. Do not take this path. Rather, avoid this path at all costs. Not doing so may cause valuable evidence to be destroyed or contaminated.
Once the remains have been located and the recovery area defined, proceed as with any other crime scene: secure the area, examine and evaluate the site, photograph, sketch and process. An evidence-free access to and from the site (i.e. corridor) must be established prior to processing. A metal detector should be used before declaring this area clear of evidence. In addition, an outer perimeter search, using a method described in the previous section, must be completed to locate other body parts or physical evidence. A command post should be set up, preferably away from the recovery site. A checkpoint should also be set up to check personnel into and out of the scene and to limit the number of people who are entering the site. One way of limiting the trouble caused by other people entering the scene is to take Polaroid pictures of the site and leave them at the command post for viewing.
The most difficult part of this recovery is now over. Take your time and do not permit anyone to rush you. Do it right the first time because there are no second chances.
After the site is photographed and sketched, clear away all the vegetation and debris. This must be performed in a way that avoids disturbing the remains or any of the physical evidence. Photos should be taken of the new ‘clean’ site. Using rope or string, a grid should be set up for the purpose of locating the items by measurements and for ease in placing the items on a sketch. The grid should be measured so that the sides are square to each other. A metal detector should again be used before any further processing. Any items located should be marked with a wood or plastic stake for future reference. Plot all evidence and remains on the sketch. Closeup photographs should be taken of all items before their removal. All photographs should be taken with a scale to show the size of the item.
All evidence collected should be packaged separately. As a rule of thumb, each item of evidence should be packaged in a paper product, unless it is liquid, in which case it should be placed in a glass vial. Paper product means paper fold, paper bag or cardboard box. The remains of the deceased should be packaged separately, if that is the way they were found. If the body is intact, use a wooden backer board, white sheet and new body bag.
Once the surface of the site has been cleared of all remains and evidence, then recheck the area with a metal detector. Assuming there are no further indications from the metal detector, the next step is to examine and excavate the top 15 cm of soil for any further evidence or bones. In some instances the remains have gone through a self-burial. Objects placed on the surface of the ground may work their way into the ground. The extent to which this may occur will depend on the object’s weight, ground density, terrain of the area, time elapsed and weather conditions.
The best method to use in removing the top several centimeters of soil is to cut the area into strips about 15 cm wide and remove the soil from the strips a section at a time. This material should then be sifted with a fine sifter. A sifter of 0.3-0.6 cm should be used so projectiles or teeth won’t be missed. Once this is completed, the maximum amount of evidence and remains can be confidently obtained.
Contaminants can be contained in the soil beneath the remains; therefore, a sample of soil should be collected for further analysis by a forensic laboratory. A standard of the soil from a general area close to the remains must also be collected and submitted for analysis.
Finally, recover all other evidence or body parts in the area outside of the recovery site. This recovery should be handled and processed as thoroughly as any other outdoor crime scene.
The length of time from the initial search, to the location of the remains, to processing completion may be several days or weeks. Consequently, weather conditions must be considered. Plan accordingly!
Excavation Techniques
The basic procedures used in surface recoveries also apply to excavations; the difference is that the majority of the evidence and the remains are below ground level.
Once the burial site has been located and defined,the method of excavation needs to be chosen. Three methods of excavating the ground around the body, and ultimately the body itself, are recommended:
• Hole As the name indicates, a hole is dug, uncovering the remains as the soil is removed from over and around the body.
• Trench A trench is dug next to the remains to a depth of 0.5 m below the upper body level. The trench must be at least the length of the body and approximately 0.5 m wide. This trench will provide sufficient room to work and collect evidence and the remains. Using this method, three of the four walls of the grave can be defined.
• Table A table is dug by trenching all around the body, usually leaving a table approximately 1.25 m wide by 2 m long and extending 0.5 m beyond the depth of the body. This method will leave all four walls of the grave intact, as well as providing sufficient room to work around the body.
Because of the ease and comfort it provides while removing the remains and evidence, the table method is preferred. Regardless of which method is used, the position of the body under the ground must be estimated prior to excavation. This is not as difficult as it sounds. Based on the parts of the body which are visible, overestimate the position of the body and dig around it.
As with any of these methods, soil in strips approximately 30 cm wide and 15 cm in depth should be removed. The soil should be hand-checked and sifted as the different layers are removed. Having one qualified person in the pit and at least four other people using the sifters will maximize the amount of evidence recovered.
Anything that is not soil could be evidence or bones. Coins from victims’ and suspects’ pockets, a wine bottle cap that can be physically matched to a wine bottle found in the suspect’s vehicle, skin tissue with ridge detail that can identify the ring finger of the victim, soy beans and corn stalks that provide a time element of the burial, magazines that can also provide a time element, and a whole host of other unusual items, not excluding weapons and projectiles, can be found. Any and all forms of evidence can be found in a grave site.
The easiest method of removing the body is to wrap it in a white sheet and place it into wooden backer board (all fire departments use them) before removing it from the grave. This will keep the body intact and make transportation easier. Once the body is removed, check the ground under it for possible footwear prints from the suspect in the soil; stranger things have happened! Several centimeters of the soil beneath the body must also be removed and sifted again to locate evidence, bones, projectiles and teeth which may be present.
Often, buried bodies are literally yanked out of the ground and taken away from the scene with no thought to evidence, either in the grave or on the body. Just because a body is buried does not mean it cannot tell a story or point a finger at the murderer. Why make the job more difficult than it already is? If this was a fresh homicide scene and the body was in a parking lot, wouldn’t everything at your disposal be used and everything possible to process the scene be done? Then why is it that, when a body is buried, investigators often have a different attitude? Probably because it is so unfamiliar. It is hoped that this manuscript will provide insight into the possibilities for physical evidence and the appropriate techniques to be used when recovering human remains which are buried and/or badly decomposed or skeletonized.
Take your time in the recovery of the remains and try to plan for the welfare of workers, the changing weather conditions, equipment needs, and 24 hour security at the scene.
Forensic Anthropology Recommendations
Because the remains in question are usually badly decomposed or skeletonized to some degree and little soft tissue may remain, an essential member of any recovery team is a forensic anthropologist. These forensic specialists usually have postgraduate qualifications in physical/biological anthropology, with education and experience in the recovery, identification and evaluation of remains suspected to be human. Their knowledge and experience can be critical in any case where decomposed and/or partially or completely skeletonized remains are expected. In cases involving badly burned remains, a forensic anthropologist at the scene can provide investigators with information that may be unobtainable once the remains are removed.
Forensic anthropologists’ detailed knowledge of the human skeletal system allows them to provide information valuable in answering several important investigative questions when decomposed or burned human remains are involved:
1. Are the remains in question human?
2. Do the human remains represent a forensic case (^50 years since time of death)?
3. Who is the victim (i.e. age, gender, ethnic origin, stature, etc.)?
4. Do the remains exhibit any indications of pre- and/ or postmortem trauma that may assist the medical examiner or coroner in cause and/or manner of death determinations?
The ability of the forensic anthropologist to answer these questions with confidence, is dependent upon not only their experience level but also the amount of the skeleton and the specific skeletal elements (bones) recovered.
The majority of cases in which a badly decomposed body is discovered outside or suspected to be buried are likely to be homicides. As in all other crime scenes, this must be assumed. We cannot go back and treat the crime scene differently once we have left. Approximately 90% of all homicides are solved when the victim is positively identified. Therefore, the ability of the investigators to identify the victim will impact their ability to solve the case. However, the ability of the forensic anthropologist to assist in the positive identification of the victim is dependent upon the investigator’s/crime scene personnel’s ability to recover as much of the skeleton as possible.
In an adult human skeleton, recovery personnel, under ideal conditions, may find up to 206-211 individual bones. In infants and young children, many more individual bones should be expected. The bones of children have not all fused, as they have in adults. The shafts of the major long bones (bones of the extremities, e.g. arms and legs) are usually all present at birth. However, the ends of the bones (epiphyses) usually do not appear until sometime after birth and before puberty. As the child ages, not only do the shafts of the bone increase in length and diameter, but the epiphyses also increase in size. Eventually, the epiphyses fuse to the shaft to form an ‘adult’ bone. This occurs in most individuals by the age of 25 years.
In order to recover as much of the skeleton as possible, recovery personnel must be generally familiar with the normal components of the human skeleton. If a forensic anthropologist is not available for assistance in the recovery, investigators can get a general idea of what bones to expect from, for example, Bass’s Human Osteology: A Laboratory and Field Manual of the Human Skeleton. Recovery personnel should use such a field manual to assist them in not only recognizing what bones are present, but, most importantly, also identifying whether key bones are missing.
While it is important to recover as much of the victim’s skeleton as possible, recovering some parts of the skeleton will increase the forensic anthropologist’s ability to assist in determining the victim’s identity (i.e. age estimation, gender determination, stature estimate and ethnic origin if possible) and provide information useful to the medical examiner or coroner in determining cause and/or manner of death.
When a surface recovery is being conducted, a visual examination of the skeletal elements present should be carried out prior to the removal of any remains. If it is determined that skeletal elements are missing, a more detailed, systematic search must be conducted. The extent of the search, as well as the type of search technique to be used, will be highly dependent upon the terrain and any observed indications of animal activity. Regardless of the search technique used, it must be systematic and not haphazard or random.
Owing to the presence of numerous, warm, moist orifices for flies to lay their eggs, the skull is typically the first part of the skeletal anatomy to decompose. As a result, the skull can often be found a distance from the main concentration of remains. Gravity, if the body is on a sloping hill or any incline, and the activity of scavenging animals, such as rodents or canines, can result in the skull being displaced after it has decomposed enough to be easily separated from the rest of the body. Similarly, if skeletal elements are determined to be missing from a body above or near a creek or stream, a search of the creek or stream bed will be required in the direction of water flow. Heavier bones, such as the long bones or pelvis, may be found closer to the original site; lighter bones, such as the bones of the hand, wrist, foot, ankle or the scapula and clavicle, may be found quite a distance downstream, depending upon the current. Forensic evidence may lie between the skull and main concentration of remains. Consequently, very detailed searches may need to be conducted in these areas.
Forensic odontologists are capable of positively identifying the deceased by comparing dental radiographs/records of the suspected victim to the teeth and bony structures surrounding the teeth that are recovered. The unique variations of one tooth may be all that is required to positively identify the deceased. It is therefore imperative that all teeth be recovered. It may be the one tooth that is not recovered that is the only tooth that can positively identify the victim.
A visual examination of the upper and lower jaw will indicate whether a tooth or teeth were missing before or after the death of the individual. The bony structures (sockets) that surround the teeth and help hold the teeth in place are reabsorbed if a tooth is lost premortem. The outer walls of the socket are not discernible. In teeth lost postmortem, the walls of the socket are identifiable and the ‘socket’ appears empty. Sometimes dirt can fill the socket. Use a soft instrument, like a toothpick, to gently push some of the dirt out. If the walls of the socket are identifiable, the tooth was lost postmortem. If is determined that ‘missing’ teeth were lost before death (i.e. no visible socket), there is no need to search any further for them. However, if teeth have been lost after death, they may be recovered from the scene.
For instance, if a skull is found away from the other parts of the body, it is likely that some teeth may have been dislodged/’lost’ as the skull rolled away from the rest of the remains. Teeth can also be dislodged as animals carry away the skull. If open tooth sockets are observed, then a systematic search (usually with the searchers on their hands and knees) will need to be conducted in the area between the skull and main concentration of remains. More specifically, this area must first be divided into a grid using string. The debris in each grid should then be removed and sifted. Any tooth or other physical evidence found must be documented by photographs, measurements and sketches. Once documented, the evidence must then be placed in a paper bag, which is then properly marked and sealed to establish chain of custody. Once the surface debris has been sorted, 5-15 cm of soil from each part of the grid will need to be removed and sifted. Teeth that may have settled in the dirt may possibly be recovered in this fashion. The grid location of any tooth or piece of physical evidence recovered should be documented.
If the remains are buried in a shallow grave, it is possible that scavengers may have disturbed the burial and dragged individual bones or parts of the body away from the grave site. Any indication of soil disturbance, such as a small hole, should result in an expanded, systematic search of the area. As when surface remains are not complete, special attention should be given to identifying any possible paths used by animals. Once identified, these paths should be extensively and systematically searched. It is also possible that a scavenging animal, such as a coyote, fox or even a skunk, may carry parts of the body back to its den. Therefore, look for dens along the way. Any dens identified should be carefully investigated for the presence of remains.
When the deceased is an infant or young child, recovering as much of the skeletal elements as possible is critical in providing the forensic anthropologist with sufficient remains to make an accurate estimate of age. Owing to the underdeveloped nature of key characteristics, the gender and ethnic origin of pre-pubescent individuals cannot be determined with confidence. Emphasis should be placed on identifying and recovering the individual components of the skull, as well as, particularly, the long bones and epiphyses. Epiphyses are typically missed in recoveries because they resemble gray, porous clumps of dirt. Individuals working the sifters must pay special attention to recovering these elements. Although it is highly recommended that a forensic anthropologist participate in the actual recovery, if one is not available to assist in the recovery of an infant or child, collect all dirt and debris and submit as evidence to the medical examiner, coroner or crime laboratory. Hopefully, a forensic anthropologist can examine this evidence in the laboratory. The specific location from which the dirt and debris was removed must be documented using standard procedures.
The forensic anthropologist may also be asked to assess the remains for evidence of trauma. It is important to identify and accurately document all indications of trauma. Documentation of premortem trauma may assist in the positive identification of the deceased. Identification of trauma which may have occurred around the time of death may be significant in the medical examiner’s or coroner’s determination of manner and cause of death.
Not all trauma will leave its trace on bone. Some trauma may only affect the soft tissues and not survive the process of decomposition; therefore, it is possible (but not probable), that in violent deaths no indication of trauma is discernible on the skeleton. However, several areas of the skeleton are critical if possible fatal injuries are to be identified and evaluated. Fatal injuries usually occur in the head and thorax (chest). Consequently, the skull, bones of the neck and upper back, shoulder and ribs should be handled very carefully. Any unintentional damage which occurs to the bones during recovery should be documented. Mistakes do happen, and can be intensified if they are not identified to the forensic anthropologist. Estimating when the fracture or injury occurred can be difficult, even without additional damage to the remains. Informing the medical examiner/coroner/crime laboratory of a mistake will save the forensic anthropologist valuable time.
Damage to other important skeletal elements can occur if recovery personnel do not handle the remains appropriately. The skull and mandible are important not only in gender determination, but the face, in particular, is also critical if the forensic anthropologist is to derive an opinion concerning ethnic origin. Often, measurements of the skull are taken to assess gender and ethnic origin. An incomplete or damaged skull will potentially eliminate the forensic anthropologist’s ability to take accurate measurements.
Never pick up the skull by the orbits or cheek bones. These are very fragile areas where fracture from injury commonly occurs. Inadvertent damage caused to these areas may diminish the forensic anthropologist’s ability to identify and appropriately evaluate fracture patterns. As previously discussed, any damage done to the remains during recovery and handling should be documented and communicated to the forensic anthropologist.
Inadvertent damage can also occur to the bones during transportation from the recovery site to the crime laboratory or medical examiner’s/coroner’s office. To avoid such damage, all long bones, the pelvis, the skull and the mandible should be packaged in separate bags. Never place any other bones in the same package with the skull, and never place other packages or equipment on top of the package that contains the skull.
An experienced and well-educated and trained forensic anthropologist is a valuable member of a recovery team. The amount of information that can be obtained from the recovered remains will depend upon the amount of the skeleton recovered, the condition of the remains and the specific remains recovered. The more that is recovered, the greater the amount of significant investigative information that can be obtained by these specialists.
Exhumations
An exhumation or disinterment is the removal of a legally buried casket from a cemetery. Persons legally buried may need to be exhumed because of possible misidentification or the recovery of new information pertinent to the cause of death. These conditions usually occur because the body was not properly processed before burial.
Exhumations are not complex. A court order or written consent must be obtained before any exhumation. Before beginning the exhumation, detailed information about the alleged deceased, name, age, height, weight, sex and cause of death, will be needed. A positive identification of the deceased will be required. The grave must be photographed prior to digging, during the exhumation and after the casket is removed.
A soil sample from the grave site will also be needed to prove that any toxins found in the body did not leach in from the surrounding ground. Soil samples should be taken from all four sides of the grave as well as from beneath the vault. A soil standard is also required and should be taken from the area adjacent to the grave.
The casket and body should be removed and transported to the facility where the autopsy will be performed. Once the autopsy is completed, the body and casket are returned to the burial site. The entire sequence is recorded photographically.
Additional Information
General descriptions of excavation and surface recovery procedures have been provided. The particular method used will depend on the terrain at the recovery site. The secondary area of the recovery site should be checked for items of evidence, such as tools used to bury the body, clothing, tire tracks, footwear prints and trash left by the suspect. Prior to beginning excavation, contact utility companies for the location of any buried cables or pipes. If the weather dictates, have an enclosed tent available to cover the grave. If there is no shade, provide at least a canopy to cover the workers. Heat exhaustion is not an uncommon problem.
A variety of shovels can be used during excavation; however, as you get closer to the remains, change to smaller digging instruments, such as a hand trowel, bamboo stick or dental instruments. The diggers will work faster than the sifters. Therefore, a sufficient number of people should be available to sift the removed soil. Try to build sifters so they are 1.25 m above the ground for the comfort of those sifting. Use clean plastic buckets to remove the soil from the excavation and transport it to the sifters. Document where each bucket of soil came from in the grave site. The specific location of any evidence recovered can be documented in context. The sifters should be approximately 0.6-1.2 cm mesh. Educate the sifters to recognize evidence. Work only during daylight hours and give the workers sufficient break periods. Do not tire them out on the first day. Boredom in the sifters will cause evidence to be missed.
Water is needed at the recovery site for drinking, cleaning hands and equipment, and for cleaning items of evidence.
If the suspected burial site is on private property, a search warrant or written consent is needed.
The news media will try to get as close as they can to the burial site. Use police barrier tape to secure and identify the outer perimeter of the site. Watch for low-flying helicopters with reporters. Turbulence from helicopter blades can cause tents used for shielding workers to collapse or evidence to be blown away.
Security must be provided at the site on a 24 hour basis. Individuals will try to remove ‘souvenirs’ during the night. In doing so, they threaten the integrity of all remaining evidence. Security should be provided on site to prevent the theft of equipment.
Digging deep may result in a water table or a pocket of water being hit. A sump pump and a generator will be required to remove this water. Be prepared in advance to locate a sump pump, if needed.Recovery sites are all different and investigators must be able to adapt to them. Consequently, prior planning is critical. Equipment must be located in advance and must be available on weekends and holidays.
If you are unsure how to recover these types of remains properly, don’t do it! Anybody can dig a body up, but, without the appropriate education and training, few can find or identify the evidence.
The team concept cannot be overemphasized when recovering human remains that are buried and/or badly decomposed or skeletonized. In addition to the all-important first officer at the scene, the crime scene technician, the coroner/medical examiner, the forensic pathologist, the investigator, the forensic anthropologist and the state’s attorney (or prosecutor), there are a few other individuals whose expertise may be of great value to the case:
• Forensic entomologist A court qualified person who specializes in the study of insects and applies his or her knowledge and skills to legal cases. Knowledge of the life cycle of flies (eggs, maggots, pupa and adults) and beetles, potentially enables the time of death to be refined. A protocol for the collection of specimens will need to be followed; consult with the forensic entomologist.
• Forensic odontologist A court qualified dentist who applies knowledge of teeth and dental variation to legal matters. He or she is capable of providing a positive identification by comparing the deceased’s teeth with known dental records.
• Forensic sculptorist A court qualified person capable of performing a facial reconstruction from a skull.
Without these experts many cases would remain unsolved due to a lack of positive identification of the deceased, or a lack of a more accurate time of death. The time to locate these experts is now, not when the remains are found. Remember the old Boy Scout motto, ‘Be Prepared!’.
Finally, the investigator who can do everything him- or herself usually has several unsolved cases but a team of experts working together has few, if any, unsolved cases. The choice is yours.
In Summary
This text was written as an overview of recovery techniques and to provide investigators with insight into the physical evidence that is obtainable when recovering human remains that are buried and/or badly decomposed or skeletonized. Its sole purpose is to encourage the reader to seek additional education and training and refer to other publications on this subject. Always remember to take your time, record everything (notes, photographs and sketches) and do not assume anything!
