Learning Objectives
1. Describe Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development as it applies to young and middle-aged adults.
2. Discuss the implications of life choices made during early adulthood.
3. Examine one aspect of life (e.g., vocation, intimate relationships) and apply it across middle adulthood.
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IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGY |
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generativity |
isolation |
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intimacy |
midlife transition |
This topic examines the development of the individual throughout early and middle adulthood. Remember, the process of growth and development is a continuum. Certain aspects of late adolescence and the beginning of adulthood are interrelated and may overlap. This is true for other stages of adulthood as well.
ADULT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT THEORIES
Although researchers have been more active in establishing theories of development in childhood and adolescence, theories do exist regarding development in adulthood. Erikson’s psychosocial theory can be applied to adults.
Erikson: Psychosocial Development
Erikson’s theory examines the psychosocial development of various age groups. Table 12-1 shows his theory for early and middle adulthood.
Remember that Erikson focuses on the psychosocial challenges that individuals face in the various life stages. People must meet and master these challenges before moving successfully to the next stage. As with children and adolescents, adults continue to face challenges as sets of positive versus negative outcomes. As people mature, however, these challenges become choices over which adults exert control. Individuals are no longer simply confronted with a challenge to conquer. Rather, they consider issues and make value judgments which directly effect outcomes. Consequences of decisions are thought out before choices are made, in contrast to the approach of young adults, who follow the “Do now, worry about the consequences later” motto. Additionally, adults can revise their choices as they continue throughout life.
Early Adulthood: Intimacy Versus Isolation
In early adulthood, people confront choices about their occupation, education, relationships, living environment, and independence. Young adults often work hard to achieve financial and emotional independence from their families of origin. They begin to establish life goals and values, although their attitudes may change later in life. Intimacy versus isolation is the challenge of this stage. Individuals choose to establish relationships with others (intimacy) or to remain detached (isolation) from others. Related choices include the following:
• Entering a serious relationship or remaining single
• Working in a people-oriented occupation (e.g., nursing) or in a quieter occupation (e.g., freelance work in one’s home)
Middle Adulthood: Generativity Versus Stagnation
By the time individuals reach middle adulthood, they have chosen a lifestyle. As they get older, many changes to this lifestyle start to happen. Children who were a focus of concern and attention grow up and leave home. Plans for retirement from a longtime occupation or career path must be considered.
TABLE 12-1. Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development—Early and Middle Adulthood
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CONCEPT |
EARLY ADULTHOOD (20-40 YEARS) |
MIDDLE ADULTHOOD (40-65 YEARS) |
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Challenge |
Intimacy versus isolation |
Generativity versus self-absorption |
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Necessary accomplishments |
Choose relationship style; select occupation; build independence |
Develop self; plan retirement; raise family; enhance relationships |
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Virtues |
Affiliation; love |
Production; caring; cooperation |
Body processes change, and physical abilities start to slow and decline. Generativity versus stagnation is the challenge. The tasks of generativity occur when middle-aged adults decide to pass on learning and share skills with younger generations. Adults who focus on individual pursuits and interests are considered to be in the phase of stagnation. Examples of opposite choices in this phase include:
• Climbing the corporate ladder and making a great deal of money or developing the intellectual self by working on advanced degrees and reading extensively
• Spending time with a significant other or pursuing solitary interests
• Learning new activities or participating in known recreation for satisfaction
Key Concept Establishing intimacy is a key challenge for young adults. Cultural patterns and societal expectations greatly influence romantic relationships and their forms.
DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY ADULTHOOD
The following section integrates concepts based on the above theories for early adulthood. Most adults go through all the following stages at some point. Keep in mind, however, that individual choices and circumstances are more influential than chronological age in determining patterns of development. When a developmental stage is not completed or all tasks are not accomplished, an individual will have to address the immediate issues before making the transition in the next phase. For example, a 29-year-old who is diagnosed with a chronic illness may need to reevaluate his or her options for starting a family or making career choices.
20 to 30 Years
Leaving Home
An important decision that young adults make relates to leaving their home of origin. No one correct way exists, simply different ways. Some young people face financial problems that force them to return to their family homes temporarily. Leaving home can follow any of several patterns:
• A person leaves home and does not move back.
• A person stays at home until he or she is forced to leave by family members.
• A person leaves, returns, leaves, returns, and continues a cycle of moving in and out.
• A person leaves, but remains within close proximity to the family of origin by moving next door.
Choosing a Career
Occupational choices are closely tied to education. Both are related to the economic situation, goals, abilities, and interests of the individual. People of all ages should enjoy their work, believe they are doing the best with their abilities, and feel they are contributing to society. Sometimes, circumstances prevent individuals from following their dreams, and they are forced to make adjustments. Adaptability to such circumstances depends largely on how well adults made adjustments throughout childhood and adolescence. Many people have more than one interest and consider alternate choices with relative ease. Although independent decision-making is necessary, support from family and friends is also important.
Establishing an Adult Identification:
Seeking Oneself
Families, peers, and surrounding cultural attitudes influence all people’s ability to establish roots. Individuals face a dilemma when they feel that their choices can no longer be changed or that a decision settles an issue forever. For example, young people may fear a commitment to marriage with a longtime partner because it will limit their freedom. They may hesitate to embark on a specific career path, fearing that they will be forced to do that job forever.
Clearly, two opposing impulses are at work during this time. Young adults want to build a safe structure for the future and have commitments and security. Yet, they also want to explore, experiment, and keep the structure flexible. An individual’s ability to balance these opposing forces determines how easily and quickly he or she passes through this phase of provisional adulthood.
Establishing Adult Relationships
Those who live on a college campus in the late teen and early adult years are surrounded by similar-aged and like-minded individuals. As they move away from college and leave their families of origin, young adults may find themselves lonely. With time, they form new friendships and intimate relationships that provide support and understanding. Such relationships include coworkers, male and female housemates, intimate homosexual or heterosexual relationships, cohabitation, marriage, and religious orders. Some adults live with parents or other relatives for social support as well.
Couples in their 20s who live together often prefer to postpone marriage until after completing college, establishing a career, and building up adequate financial resources. Others do not want to commit to a long-term relationship until later in life, if at all. Some adults live together for the same reasons others marry—for protection, to share expenses, or to escape the parental home.
People in homosexual relationships face many of the same challenges. An additional challenge may include deciding on whether or not to make the nature of the relationship public knowledge. Couples may also face prejudices and discrimination that heterosexual couples will not have to encounter.
Starting a Family
In general, society still expects most adults to marry and to establish a family and home (Fig. 12-1). Many adults postpone marriage or having children until they are in their 30s, preferring to establish careers and to become financially secure first. The rate of teenage pregnancies and unplanned pregnancies has decreased in the past 10 years.
Still, teenagers are often thrust into the responsibilities of parenthood before they are ready. Grandparents and other relatives sometimes play pivotal roles in such families.
Historically, the roles of authority, provider, and protector of the family have been associated with the male. Yet many men in today’s society are challenged to maintain these perceptions. More women are successfully entering the workforce and becoming provider, caregiver, and protector. As a result, the two-income family has had to adjust and redistribute family roles.
FIGURE 12-1 · Starting and shaping a family are significant aspects of the young adult period.
For many couples, division of labor includes sharing childcare responsibilities, enabling both mothers and fathers to develop close relationships with their children. Participation of both parents in household tasks and childrearing often contributes to a strong family unit.
Reappraising Commitments
As adults head into their 30s, restlessness, confusion, and doubt become common. Adults may find themselves asking, “Now that I am where I wanted to be, what do I want out of this life?” From about ages 28 to 32, individuals often make new choices and reappraise previous commitments. Adults who married young may question staying with their partners. They may consider a career change. These adults now realize that they can make their own decisions based on their own feelings and not the beliefs of others.
30 to 40 Years
Settling In
In their early 30s, adults begin to settle. Many adults now purchase a home. They are usually established in a career. They become more comfortable with their intimate and other adult relationships. Life becomes more rational and orderly.
Making Career Decisions
Career issues are important. A couple working different hours or shifts can develop difficulty with marital interaction time, family time, and childrearing responsibilities in their relationship.
Those who desire upward mobility must follow the rules of the corporate culture. Companies may require individuals to transfer from one city to another. For dual-career families, conflicts may arise. For example, if one partner receives a desirable job offer in another state, the couple must choose to stay together with the present employment, to move and have the other partner seek a suitable job in the new state, or to live apart and have a commuting relationship.
Adults in their 30s may find themselves without a job as companies are taken over by bigger conglomerates, headquarters move to another city, and plants close. Some adults decide to embark on a new career path or to return to school. Changes in career status, either voluntary or because of economic needs, can place stress on couples and families. Individuals must engage the support and assistance of the entire family.
Addressing Women’s Issues
Women in their 30s must make specific decisions related to childbearing. As their 30s advance, women realize that they must choose to have children now or it may soon be too late. Career goals and motherhood can conflict. A woman in her 30s who has never married may feel pressured to find the right person with whom to have a baby because she thinks life is passing her by. Adoption and artificial insemination are options for single women. Women who choose to have babies outside a committed relationship face the responsibilities and challenges of single parenthood. Women in relationships who have delayed pregnancy may face difficult decisions about employment, childcare arrangements, and responsibilities.
Facing Transitions
Many changes occur as the adult approaches middle adulthood. Growing children spend more time away from home and are more interested in being with their peers. Adults responsible for childrearing may experience feelings of loss and loneliness. They must find new interests. As the children leave home, the parents begin to examine their relationship. They may develop a new depth of intimacy or decide that they have lost their intimacy and decide to divorce. Career changes and transfers to other cities may make home life and intimacy less stable. Divorces may occur, and related adjustments must be made. A divorced adult may face the challenges of dating and financial instability, as well as redefining the relationship with the ex-spouse.
NCLEX Alert Health concerns and priorities for an adult are commonly very different than those of the younger population. Often, an adult’s concern is related to financial or physical ability to pay for costs of healthcare for children or for an aging parent. Therefore, when responding to NCLEX questions, it is important to identify a concern that has immediate, health-related consequences as compared with issues that can be addressed at a later time.
