Royal woman of the Twelfth Dynasty
The mother of amenemhet i (r. 1991-1962 b.c.e.), Nefret was a commoner, supposedly of Nubian descent and from thebes. When Amenemhet I usurped the throne upon the death of montuhotep iv, founding the Twelfth Dynasty, Nefret received the title of King’s Mother. she was mentioned in nefer-rohu’s prophecy.
Nefrusheri (fl. 20th century b.c.e.)
Royal woman of the Twelfth Dynasty
She was the consort of senwosret i (r. 1971-1926 b.c.e.) and the mother of amenemhet ii. Nefrusheri was the daughter of amenemhet i and probably Queen nefru-sobek (2). She was buried in el-LiSHT, having a small pyramid in senwosret i’s mortuary complex. A black granite statue was found in her tomb.
Nefru-Sobek (2) (fl. 20th century b.c.e.)
Royal woman of the Twelfth Dynasty
She was a consort of amenemhet i (r. 1991-1962 b.c.e.), becoming queen when another favorite was involved in an ongoing harem plot, or when the older consort died. Another harem plot did succeed, taking the life of the pharaoh.
Nefru-Sobek (3) (fl. 20th century b.c.e.)
Royal woman of the Twelfth Dynasty
A daughter of senwosret i (r. 1971-1926 b.c.e.), Nefru-Sobek was buried in el-LiSHT. A granite bowl bearing her name was discovered in senwosret i’s tomb.
Nefrusy (Nefrussy)
This was a site north of her-mopolis magna that was involved in the military campaigns of kamose (r. 1555-1550 b.c.e.). The hyksos and their Asiatic allies maintained a garrison at Nefrusy Kamose, who adapted the Hyksos chariot and formed an effective Egyptian cavalry for his campaigns, attacked the garrison with a contingent of medjay troops, the warriors of the south who were feared by the enemy. The defenders of Nefrusy were stunned by the arrival of Kamose’s units and fled northward, relinquishing the outpost. This was one of the first military episodes undertaken by Kamose in his efforts to oust the Hyksos from Egypt. apophis (2), the Hyksos king at avaris, died soon after this assault. Kamose did not live long enough to complete his efforts, a task that fell to his brother, ‘ahmose (r. 1550-1525 b.c.e.).
Nefru-totenen (fl. 20th century b.c.e.)
Royal woman of the Twelfth Dynasty
The consort of amenemhet i (r. 1991-1962 b.c.e.), she was the mother of senwosret i. Nefru-totenen was a commoner who probably married Amenemhet i before he usurped the throne. she was buried in a small pyramid at el-LISHT.
Negative Confessions Part of the mortuary rituals of ancient Egypt now called the “Declarations of Innocence,” this text was developed by the various priests of the temples to aid the deceased when in the presence of the forty-two judges in the judgment halls of osiris. The confessions were to be recited to establish the moral virtue of the deceased and his or her right to eternal bliss. The Negative Confessions detail some of the ethical and moral concerns of the various eras of Egypt, expressing the aspirations and the acknowledgment of personal responsibility for actions. The confessions included
i have not stolen.
i have not plundered.
i have not slain people.
i have not committed a crime.
i have not stolen the property of a god. i have not said lies. i have not cursed.
i have not copulated with another man.
i have not copulated with another man’s wife.
i have not caused anyone to weep.
I have not eaten my heart (indulged in despair).
i have not led anyone astray.
i have not gossiped.
i have not slandered.
i have not been contentious in affairs.
i have not caused terror.
i have not become heatedly angry.
i have not eavesdropped.
i have not made anyone angry.
i have not made anyone hungry.
such confessions covered the scope of the average person’s life in Egypt in all eras. The regulation of personal conduct was a constant theme in didactic literature on the Nile, including admonitions against petty acts and minor bad habits, which were consistently considered important to the social and spiritual well-being of the nation. The spirit of cooperation and quietude are also evident in the confessions. The length of the Negative Confessions varied, and in some periods each one of the affirmations was accompanied by an address to a particular judge.
Nehah-re
A serpentine being associated with the elaborate cultic traditions of the god re, Nehah-re attacked Re on his nightly round through the tuat, or the Underworld, but failed to halt the divine travels. The serpent was slain each night, only to rise again to continue his deadly assaults.
Nehem-awit she was a divine form of the goddess hathor, called “the Deliverer from Violence,” “the Sweeper Away of the Oppressed,” and “the One Who Serves the Deprived.” Depicted as a woman wearing a solar or lunar disk crown, Nehem-awit was also associated with the musical instrument called the siSTRUM,or seses. She used the sistrum to repel evil spirits. Nehem-awit was sometimes shown wearing a sistrum crown or the pillar of Hathor on her head. The goddess was invoked by Egyptians of all eras as one who could repel curses and evil spirits.
Nehes
A divine being, a form of the sun god re, his name was translated as “the Awakened One,” “the Awakened,” or “the Alert One.” Nehes was a companion of Re in the nightly journey through the tuat, or the Underworld, one of a retinue of spirits that guarded Re’s bark as the god visited waiting souls and restored the light of day.
Nehesy (1) (fl. 16th century b.c.e.)
Obscure ruler of the Fourteenth Dynasty at Xois
He was a contemporary of the hyksos Fifteenth Dynasty (1640-1532 b.c.e.) and ruled his small city at the same time that the last rulers of the Thirteenth Dynasty (c. 1640 b.c.e.) and the Theban Seventeenth Dynasty (1640-1550 b.c.e.) were active. Nehesy, whose name meant “Nubian,” was listed in the turin canon. The dates of his reign are unknown.
He served as an official at xois and then assumed royal status locally. His name has been discovered in inscriptions at tell el-habua and at other eastern Delta sites, indicating some prominence in the region. Nehesy ruled only xois but kept it out of the Hyksos domain.
Nehesy (2) (Nehsi) (fl. 15th century b.c.e.)
Treasury and royal court official of the Eighteenth Dynasty Nehesy also served hatshepsut (r. 1473-1458 b.c.e.) as chancellor. He served as well as the chief treasurer and as “the Guardian of the Royal Seal.” Nehesy accompanied senenmut and Prince thuity on an expedition to punt as part of Hatshepsut’s trade ventures. He was buried on the western shore of Thebes. His tomb had inscriptions concerning the reigns of Hatshepsut and Tuthmosis III. He was also honored with a shrine at gebel el-silsileh in nubia (modern Sudan).
Nehi (fl. 15th century b.c.e.)
High ranking official of the Eighteenth Dynasty
Nehi served tuthmosis iii (r. 1479-1425 b.c.e.) as the viceroy of Kush, or nubia (modern Sudan). He was given the title of “King’s Son of Kush,” a rank that accompanied the office of the viceroy of that territory in most historical periods. Nehi erected a victory stela for Tuthmosis III at wadi halfa. His residence was on the elephantine Island at Aswan, where he ruled over the regions of the south. Nehi brought tribute to the royal court each year, calling himself “a Servant Useful to His Lord, Filling His House With Gold.” His governorship of Nubia extended as far south as the third cataract of the Nile.
Neith (1) (Nit)
A goddess, sometimes called Nit by the Egyptians, whose cult dates to Predynastic Periods (before 3000 b.c.e.) on the Nile, she was the archer goddess of the Delta region, with a shrine at Basyun, on the Rosetta branch of the river. Another large temple dedicated to Neith was erected in sais, and she was popular in the faiyum and then in Upper Egypt.
A war goddess, Neith was depicted on an elaborate stela that dates to c. 2900 b.c.e. in the reign of aha, the first ruler, also called Menes. Aha reportedly erected Neith’s temple at Sais. Her name seems to have originated from a term describing the weaving of flax or spells. originally she was depicted as a cow goddess and was honored as the Mother Goddess of the Western Delta. She was also the patroness of the Libyans who ruled Egypt in the Twenty-second Dynasty (945-712 b.c.e.). Neith was depicted as a woman wearing the crown of Lower Egypt and holding bows and arrows.
Her hieroglyph name was believed to represent a loom shuttle, and the goddess became the patroness of weavers as well as hunting and warfare. in hymns she was addressed as “the Opener of the Ways.” By the time of the Old Kingdom Period (2575-2134 b.c.e.), Neith was worshiped as the consort of the god set and the mother of sobek. She was also associated with the goddess nun, the symbol of primeval chaos. The pyramid texts honor her as guarding osiris and isis. She was also linked to the linen wrappings used in the mummification process.
Neith (2) (fl. 23rd century b.c.e.)
Royal woman of the Sixth Dynasty
She was a lesser-ranked queen of pepi ii (r. 2246-2152 b.c.e.). The daughter of pepi i and ankhnesmery-re (1), she was reportedly the widow of merenre i, Pepi Il’s predecessor. A pair of obelisks was recovered, bearing her name, and her tomb in pepi ii’s pyramidal complex in south saqqara was found to be quite elaborate. A wall that was designed with an entrance surrounds this gravesite. vestibule walls are covered with reliefs at the opening of the tomb, leading to a colonnaded court with more reliefs. This court has square pillars and is a cult chamber with three niches, a serdab, and a false door. The actual burial chamber is decorated, and the ceiling is lined with star designs. The pyramid texts of the epoch are on the walls, which also have the traditional “palace facade” design.
Neithotep (fl. 30th century b.c.e.)
Royal woman of the First Dynasty
She was probably the consort of narmer and the mother of aha, the Menes honored as the first pharaoh, c. 2920 b.c.e. Her name meant the “goddess Neith is Content.” Some scholars believe that Neithotep was the consort of Aha. others believe that she is the woman depicted on the macehead of Narmer, the original heiress being presented to the unifier of upper and Lower Egypt.
Neithotep was provided with a large tomb in abydos by Aha. Her tomb is one of the earliest monuments in Egypt, designed as a brick mastaba with recessed panels on the exterior walls. The burial chamber was not subterranean but arranged at ground level. objects bearing the names of Narmer and Aha were found in this tomb.
Neka-’ankh (fl. 25th century b.c.e.)
Cultic official of the Fifth Dynasty
He served as the mortuary priest for the pyramid of userkhaf (r. 2465-2458 b.c.e.). Such priests performed cultic rituals for the deceased pharaohs, often residing in the actual pyramid complex. Neka’ankh’s tomb was discovered in saqqara, and a part of it was removed and taken to the British Museum in London.
Nekaure (fl. 25th century b.c.e.)
Prince of the Fourth Dynasty known for his last will and testament The son of khafre (Chephren; r. 2520-2494 b.c.e.), Nekaure was a mature adult when he died, and he inscribed a will on the walls of his tomb at Giza that announced that while “Living on His Two Feet, without Ailing in Any Respect” he was stating his testament for his death. This phrase was the model for the modern term “Being of sound Mind and Body.” The will bequeathed 14 towns and two estates in the pyramidal complex of Khafre to his daughter, but her premature death made it revert to Nekaure again and eventually to his wife. other properties were given to the mortuary priests in order to secure an endowment of his funerary cult. This will is a rare find, being the only document of its kind from that era in Egyptian history.
Nekhebet
The white vulture goddess, the patroness of upper Egypt, whose name meant “she of Enkhab, or Nekheb,” modern elkab, Nekhebet was part of the primeval cosmogonic traditions and symbolized nature and childbirth. in upper Egypt she was honored as “the Lady of the Valley.” Her cult dated to the earliest periods of Egyptian history. she was also depicted as a woman with a vulture headdress and a white crown. A long-stemmed flower, a water lily with a serpent entwined, was her symbol. ‘adjib of the First Dynasty (2920-2770 b.c.e.) used her name in his royal titles. Then she was shown as a white vulture with wings outspread, holding the ankh, the cross of life. She was also addressed as “the Great white cow of Nekheb.”
amenhotep ii (r. 1427-1401 b.c.e.) erected a temple to Nekhebet at Elkab. ramesses ii (r. 1290-1224 b.c.e.) enlarged the shrine and added a pylon. There are crypts under her temple that have elaborate reliefs and painted scenes. A sacred lake was part of the architectural design. in the mortuary traditions, Nekhebet played a role in the saga of osiris and inhabited the primeval abyss, nun, the waters of chaos before creation. In this capacity she was revered as a patroness of nature and creation. Nekhebet was also revered as a consort of hapi (1) in some eras.
Nekhebu (fl. 23rd century b.c.e.) Construction official of the Sixth Dynasty
Nekhebu served pepi i (r. 2289-2255 b.c.e.) as an architect and engineer and was involved in court building projects. He also directed state-sponsored royal programs, including the construction of canals and temples. Nekhebu and his son were buried at giza.
Nekonekh (fl. 25th century b.c.e.)
Royal official of the Fifth Dynasty
He served userkhaf (r. 2465-2458 b.c.e.) in the royal court and was a nobleman, possibly related to the royal family. Nekonekh received many endowments of land and honors from the pharaoh, some dating originally to the reign of menkaure (r. 2490-2472 b.c.e.).
nemes
A striped cloth headdress worn only by the pharaohs, in some historical periods, the nemes, which was distinguished by distending front panels, supported a full crown or simple uraeus symbols. The nemes were fashioned out of stiff linens or leather.
Nenekhsekhmet (fl. 25th century b.c.e.)
Medical official of the Fifth Dynasty
He served sahure (r. 2438-2446 b.c.e.) as the chief physician of the court and held that high-ranked position for decades. Because of his service, he was given honors at his death. Sahure provided two false doors for Nenekhsekhmet’s tomb, and in this burial site the ruler is depicted as praising the physician for his wisdom and age. Nenekhsekhmet’s name is derived from his devotion as a medical man to the goddess sekhmet.
Nenwif (fl. 15th century b.c.e.)
Military official of the Eighteenth Dynasty
Nenwif served tuthmosis iii (r. 1479-1425 b.c.e.) as a military commander and as the ranking officer of the newly formed cavalry units. in this capacity he accompanied Tuthmosis iii on many of his prolonged and far-reaching campaigns. Nenwif was commemorated for his loyalty and skills on a mortuary stela at thebes. His wife, Irenana, his son, Meru, and his daughter, Demiwedja, shared his mortuary honors. The names of the family members indicate possible medjay origins, from Nubia (modern Sudan).
Neper
He was an Egyptian grain deity dating to the early eras and associated with the annual harvests. Popular from the Predynastic Period, before c. 3000 b.c.e.,
Neper was incorporated into the cult of osiris soon after the unification of upper and Lower Egypt. Many osirian traditions and cultic rituals involved beds of grain and harvest observances, probably stemming from Neper’s prior ceremonies.
Nephrites I (Baenre’merynetjeru) (d. 393 b.c.e.)
Founder of the Twenty-ninth Dynasty
He ruled from 399 b.c.e. until his death. Nephrites I’s capital was at mendes, but he controlled a good portion of the Nile Valley. He captured amyrtaios of sais (r. 404-393 b.c.e.) and executed him at Memphis. He also fought off artaxerxes iii and the Persians. As ruler, he erected monuments throughout Egypt, refurbished existing sites, and also served as a patron of the apis bull cult. Nephrites I was probably buried in Mendes. His shabti, the tomb figurine, was found in a sarcophagus there, and a tomb chapel on the site is believed to have been part of his mortuary complex. At his death, psammetichus (4) vied with Nephrites i’s son and heir and usurped the throne.
Nephrites II (fl. 380 b.c.e.)
Deposed ruler of the Twenty-ninth Dynasty
He inherited the throne in 380 b.c.e. from his father hakoris but was threatened by the rise of a new royal line. Nephrites ruled only four months, being deposed by nectanebo i (r. 380-362 b.c.e.).
Nephthys (Nebt-het)
The ancient Egyptian goddess, called the consort and female counterpart to set, originally addressed as Nebt-het, she was the sister of isis, osiris, and set and tricked Osiris into siring her son, anubis. When Osiris was slain, Nephthys aided Isis in finding his body and resurrecting him. she was part of the revered lamentations of isis and nephthys.
Nephthys was a patroness of the dead and was associated as well with the cult of min. She was also a member of the ennead of heliopolis. The goddess took the form of a kite, a bird displayed in funerary processions, and she was the patroness of hapi, one of the canopic jar guardians. Her cult at Kom-Mer in upper Egypt continued throughout all historical periods. she was called “the Lady of the Mansions” or “the Lady of the topics.” She was also identified with the desert regions and was skilled in magic. Nephthys is depicted as a woman wearing the hieroglyph for “castle” on her head.
Neser (Neres)
He was an ancient Egyptian fish deity whose cult dates to Predynastic Periods in Egypt, before the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt, c. 3000 b.c.e.
The god’s rituals were popular in the Early Dynastic Period (2920-2575 b.c.e.) but then disappeared.
Neshi (fl. 16th century b.c.e.)
Multitalented official of the Seventeenth Dynasty
Neshi served kamose (r. 1555-1550 b.c.e.) in a remarkable number of capacities. He was the treasurer of the court, the overseer of royal companions, and the overseer of ships, as well as the commander of the Egyptian fleet used by Kamose against the hyksos at avaris.
Neshi is recorded as being “the Vibrant One” on the karnak Stela that gives an account of Kamose’s campaigns. He possibly served ‘ahmose (r. 1550-1525 b.c.e.), the brother of Kamose and the founder of the Eighteenth Dynasty, or he was honored by the new pharaoh in retirement. Neshi received a plot of land in Memphis from ‘Ahmose. This land grant ended up as an element of a lawsuit by Neshi’s descendant in the reign of ramesses ii (1290-1224 b.c.e.).
Nesitanebetashru (1) (fl. ninth century b.c.e.)
Royal woman of the Libyan Twenty-second Dynasty The consort of shoshenq ii (r. 883 b.c.e.), she was the mother of harsiese, the ill-fated prince of that royal line. Nesitanebetashru was a Libyan noble woman.
Nesitanebetashru (2) (fl. 11th century b.c.e.)
Royal woman of the Theban branch of the Twenty-first Dynasty She was the daughter of pinudjem (2), the high priest of Amun, in the reign of psusennes i (1040-992 b.c.e.) and his successors. She married Djeptahiufankh, another Amunite priest, and remained in Thebes. Nesitanebe-tashru’s mummy was discovered in the deir el-bahri cache in 1881. Her remains are one of the finest mummies to survive over the centuries. Her body is lifelike, complete with artificial eyes made of stone and black pupils.
Neskhonsu (fl. 11th century b.c.e.)
Royal woman and God’s Wife of Amun of the Twenty-first Dynasty She is recorded as being the wife of pinudjem (2), the high priest of amun at thebes in the reign of psusennes i (1040-992 b.c.e.) and his successors. Neskhonsu was installed as the god’s wife of amun or the Divine Adora-trice of Amun, at Thebes. She was the niece of Pinudjem. A royal-style sarcophagus from her tomb provides an elaborate lists of her titles and privileges.
Neskhonsu was buried in the cliffs at deir el-bahri on the western shore of Thebes. Her blue faience cup was also discovered there. Her sarcophagus was apparently usurped in a later historical period. she was beautifully depicted in her mortuary regalia as an aristocratic, elegant woman with long dark hair.
Nesnimu (fl. seventh century b.c.e.)
Sage and official of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty
He served psammetichus i (r. 664-610 b.c.e.) as a valued counselor and as the mayor of various cities. Nesnimu started his career as a priest of the cult of Horus in edfu but became well known for his wisdom and administrative skills. psammetichus i appointed him as the mayor of eight separate Egyptian cities, one after another, and Nes-nimu continued in these roles until his retirement.
Nessumontu (fl. 20th century b.c.e.)
Military official of the Twelfth Dynasty
He served amenemhet i (r. 1991-1962 b.c.e.) and senwosret I (r. 1971-1926 b.c.e.) as a military commander. Nessumontu led an expedition against the Asiatic Bedouins in the sinai, probably with Nubian (modern Sudanese) mercenary units. He was there to protect mines and quarries, possibly reopening some sites. His mortuary stela, now in the Louvre in Paris, recounts his career. See also Egyptian natural resources.
netcher
This was the ancient Egyptian name for the deity symbol used on totems and pennants. When a netcher was displayed on the flagstaff at the entrance to a temple or shrine, it denoted the presence of the deity in the structure. The netcher was visible when the pennants were flown by the wind. Flagstaffs and pennants were part of all religious buildings, dating to the displays of clan and NOME cult totems in the earliest periods in the Nile Valley.
neter
This was the ancient Egyptian word for a deity, translated as “power” or “strength,” as well as “renewal” or “renovation.” A neterit was a site or town dedicated to a god. In the truly archaic periods, the word was translated as “possessing the power to renew life indefinitely,” and was translated as well as “strong of arm.”
neterit
This was the ancient Egyptian word for a sacred domain or a divine site, a building or a town dedicated to a particular deity or group of gods.
Neterka (Chaires) (fl. 27th century b.c.e.)
Obscure pharaoh of the Second Dynasty
Neterka was reportedly the seventh ruler of his line. He was mentioned in the TURIN canon. No other information has been documented about him.
neter nefer
A title used by the pharaohs of Egypt to affirm their divine status, neter signified a deity. The use of the qualifying nefer, meaning good or beautiful, lessened the divine status to some extent, designating a human element that modified the godlike qualities on earth. This definition was acceptable to the Egyptians,who understood the role of the pharaoh as being both human and divine while he lived. In many cases, however, the pharaohs were deified after death and in some instances even during their lifetime. ramesses ii (r. 1290-1224 b.c.e.) was made a god at ABU simbel before he died in 1224 b.c.e.
neterui
An instrument used in the mortuary rituals of Egypt, called “the Opening of the Mouth,” the neterui, used with the ur-heka in such ceremonies, was also placed in the mummy wrappings to secure the protection of the gods. it was a simple angle form made of stone or metal. The neterui was considered capable of summoning the gods for protection in the realms beyond the grave.
net spells
They were magical formulas used by the Egyptians in mortuary rituals to provide mummies with needed protection on the last journey into the TUAT,or Underworld. They were included in the topic of the dead. These incantations allowed the deceased to avoid the snares of demons. Hraf-hef, called “he-who-looks-behind-himself,” the ferryman on the Lake of Eternity, could also be placated by the net spells. Hraf-hef was reportedly an irritable being who had to be cajoled into carrying the dead to the various paradises on the opposite shore.
Niankh-amun (fl. 24th century b.c.e.)
One of the Fifth Dynasty court officials buried in the tomb of the Two Brothers in Saqqara
A royal manicurist in life, Niankh-amun shared his tomb with a fellow courtier named Khnumhotep. The tomb of the Two Brothers was an elaborate mastaba located near the pyramid of unis (r. 2356-2323 b.c.e.). The families of both courtiers were also buried in the tomb.
Nibamon (Nibamun, Nebamon) (fl. 15th centuryB.c.E.)
Military official of the Eighteenth Dynasty He served tuthmosis iii (r. 1479-1425 b.c.e.) as a steward and military officer. Nibamon was on the staff of a Queen nebetu’u (2), a lesser-ranked consort of Tuthmo-sis iii. He then entered military service and became a captain in the royal navy. His mortuary stela, discovered in Thebes, contains details of his career.
Night of the Tear
This was an ancient Egyptian festival, called Qork en-Hatiu or Gerh-en-Hatiu to depict the tears of the goddess isis, shed as commemoratives of osiris’s death. Actually an agricultural or calendric festival, the celebration honored the annual inundations of the NILE River. The Night of the Tear was celebrated on the eleventh day of Paoni, considered by many scholars to be the modern June 17. The feast was also called the Night of the Drop.
Nile It was the “Gift of the Gods” to Egypt, the world’s longest river and the source of all life and abundance in the ancient Nile Valley. The Nile flows approximately 4,665 miles out of Africa’s heart on a unique northward journey to the Mediterranean sea and taps two separate climatic resources in order to come bounding into Egypt: the summer monsoons of Ethiopia and the sudan, which feed the river with storm waters, and central Africa’s two annual rainy seasons, which nurture the Nile with gentle downpours and overflowing lakes.
The Nile flows from two sources. The white Nile rises from the deep pools of equatorial Africa, and the Blue Nile sweeps down from the Abyssinian highlands. These combine with many tributaries, including the Atbara, which joins the Nile at the fifth cataract, bringing vast quantities of effluvium and red mud.
The cataracts of the Nile, the progression of rocky, white-rapid regions, formed the southern border of ancient Egypt since the earliest historical periods. The first cataract at aswan demarcated the border of Egypt for centuries. The other cataracts provided rocky peaks upon which the Egyptians built a series of fortresses and garrisoned trading posts and towns to command traffic on the nile in the area that is now Sudan.
Just above Aswan, at edfu, the great Nile Valley begins. Limestone cliffs parallel the river for more than 400 miles, marching beside the shoreline, sometimes close to the water and sometimes swinging back toward the deserts. The cliffs reach heights of 800 feet in some areas, with mesas and plateaus glistening against the sky. The cliffs on the west stand like sentinels before the Libyan desert, and the eastern slopes withdraw into the Arabian or Red Sea Desert. This valley provided a true cultural and geographical shelter for the emerging people of the region.
The Delta of Lower Egypt is a watery fan of seven major tributaries emptying into the Mediterranean sea: the Pelusiac, Tanite, Phatnitic (Damietta), Sebennytic, Bolbitinic (Rosetta), Mendesian, and Canopic branches. The waters of the bahr yusef, a stream dedicated to Joseph (an Islamic hero and not the biblical patriarch), flow out of the Nile and into the faiyum, a natural depression alongside the river, about 65 miles south of modern Cairo, at assiut. They are trapped in the depression and form a rich marshland region of wetlands and moist fields made available to the ancient Egyptian farmers. The site was also inhabited by crocodiles, which were honored with a shrine.
The river’s annual floods deposited a ribbon of fertile soil along its banks that enriched the farmlands and made agriculture the economic basis of the nation. In time, the Egyptians would use canals, irrigation ditches, and sophisticated hydraulic systems to reclaim lands and expand their agricultural base. when the Nile inundated the land the benefits were twofold. The river not only left rich deposits of mud and fertile silt but leached the soil of harmful salts as well. when the Nile began to recede at the end of the inundation, the Egyptians used dams and reservoirs to store water for the dry seasons of the year. The inundation of the river was gradual, heralded by the arrival of sopdu, the Greek Sirius or the Dogstar, in the sky
By july the first waters came rushing into the land, increasing every day until the fields and orchards were flooded. The inundation lasted through october, when the Nile receded again. it is estimated that Egypt received as much as 30 feet of mud as part of the inundation. For this reason the Egyptians called their land Khem, the Black Land. The deserts on either side of the river were called the deshret, the Red Lands. The stark contrast between the two regions is still very much evident.
Along its banks the Nile sustained a variety of fish and fowl. Ducks, geese, waterbirds, and nesting birds could be caught in the marshes with clap nets or with throwing sticks. The Nile nurtured the sacred lotus, reeds, and the papyrus plant, which scribes used to make papyri. The river was endless in its bounty, and the people sang its praises continually. surviving hymns to the Nile reflect a true spirit of joy and celebration. The people of Egypt understood from the charts of the astronomer-priests when to anticipate the rising floods, taking appropriate steps to prepare for the inundation and conducting rituals to celebrate the religious significance of the event. Nile festivals remained popular in every historical period.
The river was always “the Father of Life” to the ancient Egyptians, or the “Mother of all Men” to some generations. The Nile was also the manifestation of the god hapi (1), the divine spirit that unceasingly blessed the land with rich silt deposits from the continent’s core. The religious texts of ancient times link the Nile to a celestial stream that emptied out of the heavens on the Elephantine, or in the caves thought to be in that region. The annual flooding in Hapi’s lands was thus called the “Libation,” made in the honor of horus in the south and in honor of set in the Delta.
The name for the river is Greek in origin, a version of the semitic Nakhl, or “river.” The Egyptians called the river hep-ur, Great Hapi, or “sweet water.” Each generation addressed the Nile with its own special name and hymn of praise. The river was Egypt’s life’s blood, not only sustaining the people but imposing on them a sense of stewardship and a seasonal regimen, prompting the spirit of cooperation, called ma’at, that was to become the hallmark of the nation for centuries.
Nile festivals
These were the celebrations of the river and the god hapi (1), its divine manifestation in ancient Egypt, held throughout all historical periods. The night of the tear was the June holiday, dedicated to the goddess isis at the beginning of the annual inundation. It was believed that the goddess isis shed tears over the body of her husband, osiris, and these tears multiplied and caused the Nile to overflow its banks. The Night of the Tear honored Isis as the goddess of nurturing and mortuary powers, associating her with the basic life-giving function of the river.
The Night of the Dam or the Night of the Cutting of the Dam was celebrated when the inundation had reached its highest levels. Earthen dams were built to measure the height of the water, and then the upper levels were thinned and broken by boats. The ceremony signified the completion of the river’s nurturing duties. The festival remained popular in all eras, and a version was performed in modern times at various sites in Egypt until the building of the dam at Aswan.
Nile level records inscriptions marking the heights of the various annual inundations of the Nile River were discovered on the rocks at semna dating to the reign of amenemhet iii of the Twelfth Dynasty (r. 1844-1797 b.c.e.). These records continued through the close of the Seventeenth Dynasty (1550 b.c.e.) and were part of the annual recording of the river’s inundation levels, similar to the Nilometers.
Nilometers pillars or slabs were positioned at various strategic locations on the river to determine the height of the annual inundations or floods of the Nile. it was important for the Egyptians to determine the flow of the river each year, so they positioned the pillars far south of the first cataract at aswan to give early warning of any variation in the Nile’s flood levels. Information concerning the projected flood levels was sent to the ruler and his administrators by messenger. The various regional governors were also informed so that any necessary preparations could be made for the event in their territories. Two such measuring devices were used in the Delta and at the first cataract in ancient times, and subsidiary pillars were positioned in the second and fourth cataracts during the period of the empire.
The pillars were inscribed with a scale cut into cubit measurements: 1 cubit equals 18-20.6 inches. Other measurements were inscribed on later pillars. The Nilometers not only provided information on the level of the floods but also allowed the priests and governors to determine the crops that would thrive as a result of the amount of silt being deposited. prospective harvests were thus assessed and the tax bases of the crops determined in advance.
Nima’athap (Hapnima’at) (fl. 27th century b.c.e.)
Royal woman of the Second and Third Dynasties She was the consort of kha’sekhemwy (r. c. 2640 b.c.e.) and the mother of djoser (r. 2630-2611 b.c.e.). Her titles included “Mother of the King’s Children,” and her name was found in Kha’sekhemwy’s tomb. In Djoser’s reign she bore the title “King’s Mother.” Nima’athap was deified after her death and worshiped as the ancestress of the Third Dynasty.
Nimlot (1) (Nemrot) (fl. 10th century b.c.e.)
Libyan chieftain of Bubastis
He resided in Egypt in the region of the city of bubastis and was the father of shoshenq i (r. 945-924 b.c.e.). Called Nemrot in some lists, he was the husband of Princess Mehetemwashe. When Nimlot died, Shoshenq I, then a military commander, appealed to psusennes ii (r. 959-945 b.c.e.) for permission to establish a mortuary cult for his father and was allowed to make this filial gesture.
Nimlot (2) (fl. 10th century b.c.e.)
Prince of the Libyan Twenty-second Dynasty
He was the son of shoshenq i (r. 945-924 b.c.e.) and Queen penreshnas, the daughter of a Libyan noble. Nim-lot served as a commander of the army and is recorded as being “a great chief of the foreigners, the Meshwesh.” He contributed 60 bulls to the shrine at hierakonpolis.As governor of Hierakonpolis, Nimlot controlled Middle Egypt and the nomes of upper Egypt.
Nimlot (3) (fl. ninth century b.c.e.)
Prince of the Libyan Twenty-second Dynasty
He was the son of osorkon ii (883-855 b.c.e.), serving as a military commander at herakleopolis and then as high priest of amun in thebes. His daughter, karomana (5) Merymut, married takelot ii. His sons were Ptahwed-jankhaf of Herakleopolis and Takelot. Nimlot restored order at Thebes after the rebellion prompted by harsiese.
Nimlot (4) (d. c. 712 b.c.e.)
Obscure ruler of the Twenty-third Dynasty
He ruled from c. 828 b.c.e. and then was reduced to the status of a vassal governor of his city-state. Nimlot ruled hermopolis only and joined the coalition started by tef-nakhte of sais and including osorkon iv, peftjau’abast of herakleopolis, and iuput of leontopolis. The coalition faced piankhi (1), and his army of Nubians (modern Sudanese) at Herakleopolis and surrendered to his superior forces. Nimlot was allowed to remain the ruler of Hermopolis as a vassal of piankhi after he surrendered to the Nubian ruler.
Nine Bows
This was a term used to signify the enemies of Egypt in all eras, normally depicting the foreign nations already subdued. in one Ramessid (1307-1070 b.c.e.) relief the Nine Bows were portrayed as Libyans, Nubians, hittites, Syrians, Mesopotamians, Philistines, Dardanians, Lycians, Sardinians, and Silicians. The actual composition of the Nine Bows varied from one historical period to another, as nations rose and fell while Egypt endured. The enemies designated as the Nine Bows were sometimes depicted on the inner soles of the pharaoh’s sandals so that he could tread upon their persons. They were also used on statues and reliefs that celebrated Egypt’s military prowess.
Ninetjer (fl. 27th century b.c.e.)
Third ruler of the Second Dynasty
His capital was Memphis, and he is listed on the Palermo stone and recorded as appearing “God-Like.” The dates of his actual reign are unknown. Ninetjer erected a royal residence and conducted the apis festivals. An alabaster statue of him has survived, and vases bearing his name were discovered in the step pyramid. He was possibly buried under the causeway of unis (r. 2356-2323 b.c.e.), which was built over the site at saqqara. His seals were found there.
Another tomb, near the gravesite of hotepsekhemwy in saqqara, has also been identified as his resting place. This burial site has corridors, storerooms, and three main galleries. The burial chamber collapsed, but Late Period (712-332 b.c.e.) coffins were discovered there in 1938. This tomb contained other passages and side chambers as well as a labyrinth. Ninetjer apparently put down a major rebellion in his thirteenth regnal year. His successor was possibly sendji, an obscure ruler listed as “the Fearful one.”
Nineveh It was the capital of the Assyrian or Agade nation situated on the eastern bank of the Tigris River near modern Mosul in northern iraq. The city had seven and one half miles of defensive walls, erected on two mounds: Nebi Yunus and Kuyunjik. ASSURBANiPAL,an Assyrian king, built a palace and established a cuneiform library there. when he entered Egypt in the reign of taharqa (690-664 b.c.e.), essarhaddon, another Assyrian ruler, captured the queen, amun-dyek’het, and crown prince of the land, ushanahura, and took them back to Nineveh as slaves.
Nisankh-Pepi-Kem (fl. 23rd century b.c.e.)
High ranking official of the Sixth Dynasty
He served pepi i (r. 2289-2255 b.c.e.) as vizier of Lower Egypt. Nisankh-Pepi-Kem was buried at Deir el-Muhar-rak, near assiut. A large pillared chamber in his tomb leads to a small, undecorated burial shrine. An unfinished false door was also part of his tomb.
Nitocris (1) (Nitigret) (fl. c. 2153 b.c.e.)
Fabled queen-pharaoh of the Sixth Dynasty
herodotus listed her and related a fable concerning her activities. Nitocris reportedly came to power after her brother, merenre ii (r. c. 2152 b.c.e.), was slain. In vengeance she supposedly invited hundreds of officials she believed responsible for her brother’s death to a banquet in a subterranean chamber and then flooded it. she had a one-year reign and was listed in the TURIN canon. Nitocris was the royal consort of Merenre ii.
Nitocris (2) (fl. 7th century b.c.e.)
Royal woman of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty
She was the daughter of psammetichus i (r. 664-610 b.c.e.), and Queen mekhtemweskhet (2). Nitocris was “adopted” by shepenwepet (2) and became a god’s wife of amun, or a Divine Adoratrice of Amun, at Thebes. She lived into her 70s and in 595 b.c.e. “adopted” the daughter of psammetichus ii (595-589 b.c.e.). ankhesneferi-bre thus became her successor. Nitocris was buried in a red granite sarcophagus in thebes and was given a tomb chapel in karnak.
Niuserre (Izi) (d. 2392 b.c.e.)
Sixth ruler of the Fifth Dynasty
He reigned from 2416 b.c.e. until his death. Niuserre was probably the son of neferefre or kakai. His queens were khentikus, reputneb, and nub. He is also famed for his sun temple in ABU ghurob, a structure made entirely of stone. Once called the Pyramid of Righa, the temple was designed with a large square base and a tapering platform, with an open court and altar. This altar was fashioned out of a monolithic slab of travertine marble, surrounded by four adornments, carved with the hieroglyph of offering. Niuserre sent an expedition to the mines on the sinai.
Niya it was a small nation existing during Egypt’s New Kingdom Period (1550-1070 b.c.e.). A client state of Egypt, Niya was situated on the banks of the orontes River, bordering Nuhashe and Barga. The hittites conquered the region, ending Niya’s ties with Egypt. The small nation was absorbed into other cultures and ceased to exist in the area.
Nodjmet (fl. 11th century b.c.e.)
Royal woman of the Twentieth Dynasty
She was the wife of herihor, the high priest of amun at thebes, in the reign of ramesses xi (1100-1070 b.c.e.), and was depicted in reliefs in the temple of Khonsu at karnak. Her mummified remains, recovered in Thebes, had her heart within her body. Her hair was braided, and she had artificial eyes and packed limbs and cheeks. Nodjmet’s mummy reflects new embalming techniques introduced into the mortuary rituals in that era. she was discovered in an adzed coffin.
Nofret (1) (fl. 26th century b.c.e.)
Royal woman of the Fourth Dynasty
She was the wife of Prince rahotep (1), a son of snefru (r. 2575-2551 b.c.e.). A limestone statue of Nofret, one of a pair surviving as portraits of the couple, was found in their mastaba tomb in meidum. The statue, realistic and lifelike, depicts a prosperous, amiable woman in the court dress of the time.
Nofret (2) (fl. 19th century b.c.e.)
Royal woman of the Twelfth Dynasty
A consort of senwosret iii (r. 1878-1841 b.c.e.), Nofret was buried in the pyramidal complex at el-lahun.A black quartzite statue of her survives.
nomarchs
The hereditary aristocracy of the Egyptian nomes, or provinces, called the heri-tep a’a, these nobles raised their own armies, served as representatives of the pharaoh, and defended their borders. The nomarchs of assiut and beni hasan were famed for their military prowess as well. In historical periods of weak rulers, the nomarchs became more independent and involved themselves in provincial feuds. Most nomarchs were hereditary princes or counts.
When ‘ahmose (r. 1550-1525 b.c.e.) undertook the reorganization of Egypt after the expulsion of the hyksos (Asiatics), he punished the nomarchs that had served the foreigners. In time, ‘Ahmose invited many such nome aristocrats to reside in the royal residence at Thebes, the capital. This deprived the nomarchs of their independence and made them hostages for the continued loyalty of their provinces. The nomarchs were also called djadjet. They and their expanded families maintained their own lifestyles and traditions, even in eras of strong centralized rule. The cliff tombs of Assiut and Beni Hasan and other monuments testify to the continuing strength and dynamism of the nomes.
In the later eras of Egypt, the nomes assumed importance again as the people centered on their homelands and strengthened their territories. During the Ptolemaic Period (304-30 b.c.e.), for example, the legal systems of the nomes became paramount in maintaining judicial order, as the Ptolemies used one set of laws for the Greeks and Hellenized populations and another system for the native Egyptian populations. The Ptolemies relied upon the traditions of the nomes to clarify and conduct the legal requirements within the various provinces. The system proved effective, as the nomes carried on their normal court and council routines and proved stable in all instances. When the Romans occupied Egypt, the nation proved one of the most reliable provinces of the empire, as the nome system and the spirit of cooperation and joint projects were continued successfully.
nome
This was a province or administrative region of ancient Egypt, called sepat or the qah in Egyptian and nomos by the Greeks. some nomes date to predynastic (before 3000 b.c.e.) times, and all were governed by a heri-tep a’a, or nomarch, a “Great Overlord,” a hereditary title roughly equivalent to a prince or count. such overlords were responsible for military levies demanded by the rulers and for taxes and tributes assessed for their territories. Each nome had a capital city and a cult center dedicated to the god of the region, as well as totems, but these changed in the course of Egyptian history. The total number of nomes was altered as well, standardized only in the Greco-Roman Period, A grid, called a spat, was used to designate the nomes.
The first recorded mention of such nomes dates to the reign of djoser (2630-2611 b.c.e.), although the armies marching with narmer (c. 3000 b.c.e.) carried totems depicting nome symbols. By the reign of niuserre (2416-2392 b.c.e.), Egypt was divided into the standard 22 nomes in upper Egypt and 20 nomes in Lower Egypt.
noon meal
This was a repast called “time to perfume the mouth” by the ancient Egyptians.
Nub (fl. 24th century b.c.e.)
Royal woman of the Fifth Dynasty
She was a consort of niuserre (r. 2416-2392 b.c.e.). Nub was not the ranking queen of the reign and not the mother of the heir.
Nubhotepti (fl. 17th century b.c.e.)
Royal woman of the Thirteenth Dynasty
she was called “the child” in mortuary inscriptions. Nubhotepti was provided with a royal tomb at dashur, near the funerary complex of awibre hor. Her mummified remains indicate that she was 44 years of age or older when she died, and her portrayal as “the Child” remains a mystery.
Nubia
This was the land composing modern Sudan below the first cataract of the Nile, called Ta-seti, wawat, and Kush in reference to specific regions over the various historical eras. The prehistoric period (c. 6000-3100 b.c.e.) culture of the area was based at modern Khartoum. Nomadic cattle herders settled there, and evidence of pottery and other industries demonstrate a cultural development. From 4000 to 3100 b.c.e., the culture of Nubia was contemporaneous with Egypt’s Nagada I and II.
The A Group of Nubia is evident c. 3100-2800 b.c.e. in some areas. The rulers buried by this culture had elaborate tombs and funerary regalia. The A Group were enemies of southern Nubians and were colonized by the Egyptians. The C Group, prospering c. 2100-1500 b.c.e., were linked to the B Group and resided in the area called Wawat by the Egyptians. They farmed, herded animals, and traded goods. During the Twelfth Dynasty (1991-1783 b.c.e.), the C Group was viewed as a threat, and the Egyptians began to fortify the second cataract installations.
The Kermeh culture in Nubia dates to c. 1990-1550 b.c.e. Kermeh became an Egyptian colony under ‘Ahmose (r. 1550-1525 b.c.e.), and many nobles of this culture were educated in Thebes as a result. The area was of vital concern to Egypt from the start of the dynastic period, and as early as the First Dynasty (2920-2770 b.c.e.) the Egyptian rulers were active to some extent in that region. aha (Menes; 2920 b.c.e.) recorded the taking of two villages below gebel el-silsileh during his reign, and the ruler djer’s name appears in a mutilated battle scene at wadi halfa. Trade with Nubia was also considered essential to most dynastic ambitions and resulted in exploration and occupation of Nile sites, although the Egyptians did not penetrate deeply into the lands beyond the Nile shoreline.
The Egyptians representing throne interests exchanged pottery and stone for ivory, gold, ebony, ostrich feathers and eggs, leopard skins, copper, amethyst, car-nelian, feldspar, oils, gum resins, cattle, dogs, and a variety of exotic wild animals. In time the Nubians manufactured additional goods in wood, leather, hide, and various types of metals, using these wares to trade as well, and accepting copper tools, jewelry, and amulets in exchange. The various Nubian cultures were also learning about the Egyptian cultic traditions and studying their architectural endeavors.
At the end of the Second Dynasty, kha’sekhemwy (r. 2640 b.c.e.) led a military campaign into Nubia, starting colonies, fortifying the major mining sites, and building garrisons at the trading posts already in existence. The Egyptians maintained these posts but did not attempt to penetrate into the hinterland. The first such trading settlement known was at buhen, near the second cataract, founded as early as the Second Dynasty snefru (r. 2575-2551 b.c.e.), the founder of the Fourth Dynasty, invaded Nubia and reported bringing back prisoners and cattle. The gold and copper mines of the region were probably being worked by then, and fortresses and garrisoned positions were becoming more extensive. Nubians were already serving as mercenaries in the Egyptian army. General weni, the commander of the military forces for pepi i (r. 2289-2255 b.c.e.), attached various units of Nubian warriors to his forces when he conducted campaigns in the sinai and Canaan-ite regions.
The extent of Egyptian activity in Nubia during the First Intermediate Period (2134-2040 b.c.e.) is in question to some extent, but montuhotep ii (r. 2061-2010 b.c.e.) of the Eleventh Dynasty is credited with reconquering the original Egyptian holdings in Nubia after uniting upper and Lower Egypt.
During the Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 b.c.e.), the quarries and mining operations were reopened, and caravans from southern domains traded with the Egyptians at the fortresses maintained on the Nile. These fortresses stretched along the river from cataract to cataract, with each garrison positioned to send messages north or south in case the Nubians demonstrated widespread migrations or threatened the trade routes. in the Middle Kingdom the term Kush identified the lower territories of Nubia, a designation that was used throughout the New Kingdom as well.
When the Middle Kingdom collapsed, the Egyptians withdrew from Nubia, and the region around kermeh became a capital for the people of Kush. The Kushites, however, were not able to assist the hyksos, or Asiatics, when the rulers of the Seventeenth Dynasty at Thebes began their northern assault in c. 1560 b.c.e. kamose, the last pharaoh of that line, and the older brother of ‘ahmose, the founder of the New Kingdom, appears to have had a viceroy of Nubia. He may have taken possession of the former Egyptian territories before marching against apophis (2), the Hyksos king, using the medjay, the veteran Nubian troops in service to Thebes. When Kamose did go into battle he used these Nubians who had taken up residence in large numbers in the Egyptian Eastern Desert. The Medjay are believed to be the pan-grave people. The necropolis areas designated as pan-grave sites appear in southern Egypt at this time, as well as in Lower Nubia. The Medjay remains found below the first cataract probably belonged to those troops who served as an occupying force for the Egyptians there.
‘Ahmose had viceroys of Nubia and rehabilitated the fortresses there. in time the Egyptians would control the Nile down to the fifth cataract. They did not venture far inland at any given point but were content to conduct extensive trading operations, along with their usual mining and quarrying systems.
During this period the Egyptians displayed little interest in the customs, religion, or national ideals of the Nubian people. Their god, dedun, received some royal patronage, as during the reign of tuthmosis iii (14791425 b.c.e.), but in general the region was viewed simply as an occupied territory and was extended none of the courtesies offered the Levantine city-states that were also part of the empire.
Nubia was administered by Egyptian officials according to accepted procedures. it was divided into an upper Nubia and a Lower Nubia, each under the control of a governor. The northern province probably included the lands as far south as semna, was called Wawat, and was administered at aniba. Upper Nubia was governed from;amara West, at least during the Nineteenth Dynasty (1307-1196 b.c.e.). The fortresses and garrisons were under a single commander, assisted by the usual assortment of Egyptian officials, scribes, bureaucrats, and agents.
Nubia was not occupied during the Third Intermediate Period (1070-712 b.c.e.), as the Egyptians were preoccupied with their own internal problems. During the reign of shoshenq i (945-924 b.c.e.) of the Twenty-second Dynasty, Egypt traded with the Nubians, but few rulers could muster enough forces to control the traditional fortresses or trade stations. By 770-750 b.c.e., the Nubians had made inroads into the Theban nomes, and in 750 b.c.e., piankhi (1) led an army into Egypt to restore the Amunite temples and religious fervor.
The Twenty-fifth Dynasty (712-657 b.c.e.) was Nubian, but these rulers faced an Assyrian invasion and could not maintain their hold on the land. The meroe culture then emerged, but lasted only until 350 c.e. This kingdom was relatively free of contact with others, being willing and able to do battle to halt the advances of conquerors. The Romans found them to be formidable foes at aswan in 24 b.c.e.
The Meroe culture included modern Sudan and established trade relationships with other cultures, both on the Nile and on the Red Sea. In time, after a revival of arts and architecture, a period of extensive pyramid construction was conducted at Meroe. The reliefs and artistic projects of this culture demonstrate skills and a thorough knowledge of the Egyptian canons. in time, Meroe was beset by tribal assaults and climatic changes, bringing about its collapse and the introduction of other influences.
