Dissolution of the monasteries
The closure of the religious houses in England under henry viii. Monasteries, nunneries, and friar houses were common in Catholic England and large numbers of ascetics lived in them. These religious communities had long attracted controversy: critics lamented that members were morally lax, that their Christianity was excessively contemplative, that they venerated relics pointlessly, and that, as powerful landowners, they were institutionally corrupt. These complaints grew during the early years of Protestantism. Henry VIII, who needed revenue, exploited discontent with perceived monastic privilege to seize the assets of abbeys. Under Thomas cromwell’s direction, the suppression of the monastic orders became a crucial moment in Protestant advancement.
The Suppression of Religious Houses Act was passed by Parliament in 1536. This initial strike was intended to remove smaller abbeys, without quashing major houses. Within months, around a third of monastic holdings had been confiscated. Anger at the state’s attack on the orders partly inspired the 1536/7 pilgrimage of grace. The involvement of monks from large abbeys in the rebellion added impetus to Henry’s drive against their orders. More comprehensive suppression of monasteries ensued. The Second Dissolution Act (1539) rubber-stamped additional seizures of land by forces sent around the country by Cromwell. Most orders had already been erased by the time of this second Act. The state compensated members of the orders, most of whom had surrendered meekly, with varying degrees of generosity or meanness. Henry’s obliteration of the monastic communities impacted hugely upon his Catholic subjects. The dissolution left permanent material scars, as it caused the loss of ecclesiastical artefacts, buildings, manuscripts, and paintings through both willful destruction and subsequent neglect (see anti-quarianism).
Divine Comedy (Italian La Divina Commedia)
The poem by dante, begun in exile in 1306 and allegorically describing the poet’s (by implication mankind’s) journey through life to salvation. The Commedia (as originally entitled, "divine" being a later addition) is the central and culminating literary work of medieval Europe. It is systematically structured in terza rima, with three cantiche (Inferno, Purgatorio, Paradiso), each having 33 canti (plus an introductory canto to the Inferno), and with each of the realms having nine subdivisions.
The action takes place in the year 1300. The poet is lost in a wood and unable to escape. virgil, representing Reason, is sent by Beatrice, representing divine Revelation, to guide the poet’s descent into Hell so that through a knowledge of sin he may acquire humility and finally ascend to Paradise. Dante’s judgments on a number of people and issues are reflected in the historical persons who populate Hell and in the imaginative punishments meted out to them. The penitential mood continues, but with renewed hope, in Purgatorio, at the end of which Virgil vanishes and Dante is reunited with Beatrice. Paradiso is devoted to an exposition of religious life and the poetry is gradually simplified to an imagery of light as the work ends with a vision of divine love.
Manuscripts extant from the period up to Dante’s death (1321) number 600. boccaccio instituted the first public lectures on Dante in Florence (1373), and a vast amount of critical commentary has accumulated since. The first printed edition of the Divine Comedy (Foligno, 1472) was followed in the same year by others printed at Mantua and Iesi. In all, just under 50 editions appeared before 1600, and there was also a substantial secondary literature in both Latin and the vernacular. English-speaking admirers of Dante, of which there were always some from Chaucer onward, read the Divine Comedy in Italian until the first complete translation in blank verse by H. Boyd in 1802. It was soon superseded by Henry Francis Cary’s version (1814), also in blank verse. The annotated translation by Dorothy L. Sayers (3 vols, Har-mondsworth, U.K., 1955-62) is in terza rima. More recent verse translations include highly praised versions by John Ciardi (New York, 1977), Allen Mandelbaum (Berkeley, Calif., 1987), and Robert Pinsky (New York, 1996). For an Italian text with facing English translation and commentary see the three-volume edition by J. D. Sinclair originally published in 1939 (New York, 1961, 1981).
Dodoens, Rembert
(1517-1585) Flemish physician and botanist
His Cruydeboeck (1554) owes much to Leonhart fuchs’s herbal, including its illustrations. clusius translated it into French (1557), a version used by Henry Lyte for his Niewe Herball (1578). Lyte’s translation and Dodoens’s last book, Stirpium historiae pemptades sex (1583), were among John gerard’s sources for his Herball.
Doge
The head of state or chief magistrate in the republic of Genoa (1339-1797) and Venice (697-1805). Influential in medieval times, the Venetian office of doge became increasingly ceremonial with real power residing in the maggior consiglio. While the dogate in Venice played an important role in the city’s admired constitutional stability, the Genoese doges tended to have short and tumultuous terms of office until the 16th century when Andrea doria reformed the system with biennial elections to the position. The dogate in both cities was abolished by Napoleon.
Dolce stil nuovo
The "sweet new style" of lyric verse between about 1250 and 1300. The term was coined by dante (Purgatorio XXIV 57), who lists Guido Guinizelli (c. 1240-76), cavalcanti, and himself among the practitioners (De vulgari eloquentia). Later critics have added other names. It greatly influenced petrarch and through him many later poets. Characterized by musicality, the spiritualization of courtly love conventions, and a mystical and philosophical strain in the close analysis of love, the style was adopted in sonnets, canzoni, and ballads, the culminating examples being the poems inspired by Beatrice and gathered by Dante in his Vita nuova.
Dolet, Etienne
(1509-1546) French humanist and printer Born at Orleans, Dolet was forced to abandon his law studies at Toulouse on account of his outspoken involvement in several controversial issues. He moved to Lyons, where he produced his two major works: Dialogus de imi-tatione ciceroniana (1535), in which he defended his fellow Ciceronians (see cicero) against the attacks of erasmus, and Commentarii linguae latinae (1536-38), a significant contribution to Latin scholarship. In 1538 he set up as a printer, publishing the works of his friends marot and rabelais and his own translations of classical literature and the Scriptures. He was the first to translate Platonic dialogues into French. Dolet was imprisoned at least four times: on the first occasion he had been accused of killing a painter, apparently in self-defense, for which he received a royal pardon; he subsequently faced three charges of atheism, based on his publication of allegedly heretical writings, notably a dialogue (attributed to Plato) denying the immortality of the soul. He was burned at the stake in the Place Maubert, Paris.
Domenico da Cortona (Le Boccador)
(1470-1549) Italian architect and woodcarver
Domenico executed most of his best-known works in France, where he arrived in 1495 at the summons of Charles VIII. Responsible for the furthering of many Italian ideas in France, Domenico probably designed the wooden model for the Chateau de chambord, which was begun in 1519. A development of the designs of Giuliano da Sangallo, the model included such novel features as a double central staircase and had a profound influence upon subsequent architects in France. Other works included the design of the Hotel de Ville in Paris (1532).
Domenico Veneziano
(died 1461) Italian painter Probably a native of Venice, Domenico was first recorded in Perugia in 1438, when he wrote to the Medici family asking for commissions; he settled in Florence in 1439. Noted for his interest in the effects of light upon color, Domenico was employed upon a fresco cycle in Sant’ Egidio in Florence (1439-45), now lost, on which he was assisted by piero della francesca. Only two signed works by Domenico survive, the earlier being the Car-nesecchi tabernacle (c. 1440; National Gallery, London), which reveals the influence of Masaccio. His greatest work was the altarpiece (c. 1445; Uffizi, Florence and elsewhere) painted for the church of Sta. Lucia de’ Magnoli in Florence, an early example of the sacra conversazione, showing the Madonna and Child with four saints. One of the predellas from this altarpiece, an exceptionally beautiful and hieratic Annunciation, is in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, U.K. Other works sometimes attributed to Domenico include several profile portraits, an Adoration of the Magi (date unknown; Staatliche Museen Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin), and SS. John and Francis (Sta. Croce, Florence), which echoes the style of andrea del castagno.
Donatello (Donato di Betto Bardi)
(1386-1466) Italian sculptor
A Florentine by birth, Donatello was the greatest sculptor of the early Renaissance and one of its key figures, alongside ghiberti, masaccio, brunelleschi, and alberti. He was one of the pioneers of linear perspective. Deeply concerned with the revival of Greco-Roman culture and realism in art, he nonetheless remained sincerely Christian.
First documented as an assistant to Ghiberti on the models for the reliefs on the north doors of the baptistery (1404-07) in Florence, Donatello became a rival, allying himself with Brunelleschi. For public corporations such as the board of works of the cathedral and the guilds of Florence, he carved a succession of over-life-size statues in marble that indicate his rapid progress away from his
Gothic beginnings (e.g. the marble David; now Bargello, Florence), via a transitional statue, St. John the Evangelist, for the cathedral facade (1408; now Museo dell’ Opera del Duomo, Florence), to full-blown Renaissance figures like St. Mark (1411-13; Orsanmichele, Florence) and St. George (1415; Bargello). These were followed by a series of increasingly expressive statues of Old Testament prophets for the campanile (1415-36; now Museo dell’ Opera del Duomo). By imaginatively combining his study of Roman portrait statuary with his observation of contemporary Florentines, Donatello single-handedly created a new sculptural style with a maximum dramatic effect. He later pursued this vein in woodcarvings of St. John the Baptist (1438; Frari church, Venice) and St. Mary Magdalene (c. 1455-60; Museo dell’ Opera del Duomo).
Donatello also invented schiacciato, a technique of very shallow carving for narrative reliefs which approximated the effect of drawing and shading on paper; this allowed the sculptor much greater freedom to suggest depths, movement, and emotion. The progressive milestones in this mode are St. George and the Dragon (c. 1415; Bargello); the Ascension of Christ (Victoria and Albert Museum, London); the Assumption of the Virgin (Sant’ Angelo a Nido, Naples); the Feast of Herod (c. 1435; Musees des Beaux-Arts, Lille). These reliefs are quite unparalleled and were imitated only by desiderio da settignano and by michelangelo in his youth. His friezes of putti on the Cantoria of the Duomo in Florence and on the external pulpit of Prato cathedral, both carved in the 1430s, show his highly individual interpretation of antique motifs.
Donatello’s favorite patron was Cosimo de’ medici, for whom he created many and various sculptures, including the reliefs in Brunelleschi’s old sacristy and, later, the bronze pulpit in San Lorenzo, and for the newly built Medici palace the bronze statues of David (Bargello) and Judith and Holofernes (Palazzo Vecchio, Florence). Outside Florence, his greatest sculpture is in Padua, where he spent a whole decade (1443-53): this comprises the first surviving equestrian monument since ancient times, the statue to gattamelata, and statues and panels for the high altar of the basilica (il Santo).
Donatello also worked in Rome and Siena. In each of these artistic centers, his fully developed Renaissance style made a great impact on the local schools, which were fundamentally still late Gothic in character and mood. In Padua and Siena, where he worked exclusively in bronze, he founded a strong tradition—bellano and riccio in Padua, vecchietta and francesco di Giorgio in Siena. In his native Florence his principal followers were, in marble carving, Desiderio da Settignano and michelozzo, and, in bronze casting, verrocchio, pollaiuolo, and bertoldo. The latter formed a living link between the elderly Do-natello and Michelangelo.
Dondi, Giovanni de
(1318-1389) Italian astronomer and horologist
Born at Chioggia, near Venice, the son of a physician and clock maker, Dondi followed his father Jacopo (1293-1359) and taught medicine and astronomy at the universities of Padua and Pavia. Jacopo was reported to have built an astronomical clock in 1344 in Padua. Shortly afterwards, probably with his father’s help, Giovanni began work on his own clock. Completed in 1364, it was sited in the Visconti castle in Pavia. Though long since destroyed, details of the clock are preserved in Giovanni’s lavishly illustrated 130,000-word manuscript. More concerned with celestial movements than the hourly recording of time, the brass weight-driven clock had seven sides, displaying much astronomical and calendrical information. It contained the most advanced gearing then constructed and remained unsurpassed in design until the mid-16th century.
Doni, Anton Francesco
(1513-1574) Italian writer The son of a Florentine tradesman, Doni joined the Servite order at an early age but left it in 1540, thereafter supporting himself by his writings. After Pietro aretino, he was the most distinguished of the authors known as the poligrafi, whose lively vernacular works were aimed at a popular audience and printed mainly in Venice. Often critical of or disillusioned with many humanist ideals, Doni’s works include La zucca (1551; The Gourd), a collection of stories and proverbs; I marmi (1553; The Marble Steps), imaginary conversation overheard on the steps of Florence’s Duomo; and I mondi and Gl’ inferni (1553), dialogues on seven imaginary worlds and hells.
Don Quixote (Spanish El ingenioso hidalgo Don Quixote de la Mancha)
The comic prose masterpiece by Miguel de cervantes saavedra, published in two parts (1605, 1615). In the prologue to Part I (52 chapters), Cervantes declares his intention of ridiculing the romances of chivalry. The elderly hidalgo Don Quixote has gone mad from reading too many of them and so, emulating Amadi’s de Gaula and other knights errant, he set out from his village on his nag Rocinante in search of adventure. Sancho Panza, whose peasant realism and unheroic character contrast with Quixote’s idealistic credulity, becomes his "squire." The episodes, in which Quixote’s delusion transforms windmills into giants and peasant girls into princesses, range from farce to social satire and high comedy. A vast number of brilliantly sketched characters are introduced, but the action is interrupted by digressions and long interpolated tales. Part II (74 chapters), which Cervantes hastily completed because an unknown author ("Alonso Fernandez de Avellaneda") had published a spurious sequel in 1614, continues the adventures but with fewer digressions and a much greater unity of action. In the course of events, the characters of Quixote and Sancho acquire a new depth until finally Quixote returns home, recovers his sanity, and dies. The book’s success was immediate and its influence enduring. It was translated into English (by Thomas Shelton, 1612-20) and French (1614-18) in Cervantes’ lifetime, and into Italian shortly afterwards (1622-25). Shelton’s version was republished in the Tudor Translations series (1896; repr. 1967), and another edition of this version, published in 1901, has illustrations by Frank Brangwyn. J. M. Cohen’s translation, The Adventures of Don Quixote (Harmondsworth, U.K., 1950) has frequently been reprinted in the Penguin Classics series. A more recent version is that for Norton Critical Editions by Burton Raffel (New York, 1999).
Doria, Andrea
(1466-1560) Genoese statesman, admiral, and patron of the arts
After fighting for the papacy and Naples he fitted out eight galleys to defeat the Barbary pirates and the Turks in the Mediterranean and won great acclaim by defeating the Turkish fleet at Pianosa (1519). He helped francis i of France take Genoa (1527), but changed sides (1528), obtained the protection of Emperor charles v, and drove the French out. He then established his authority over Genoa, suppressing conspiracies and developing oligarchic rule. As grand admiral of the imperial fleet he helped Charles V take Tunis (1535). He came out of retirement to lead the Genoese reconquest of Corsica (1559).
Doria, Gian Andrea
(1539-1606) Genoese nobleman, grand-nephew and heir of Andrea Doria
When Andrea retired (1555) he handed over the command of his squadron to Gian Andrea, whose record as a naval commander proved disappointing; he failed to take Djerba (1560) and his squadron performed poorly for the imperial fleet at lepanto (1571). After his grand-uncle’s death Gian Andrea joined the older Genoese nobility in their struggle for power against the newer nobility.
Dort, Synod of
(1618-19) An assembly of the Dutch Reformed Church at Dordrecht (Dort), to settle disputes arising from the Arminian Remonstrance (see arminian-ism) to the states general of the United Provinces. The official delegates were all Gomarists, that is, strict Calvinists. Representatives of the remonstrants were heard, but took no part in the procedure, and they were eventually expelled. Emissaries from German, Swiss, and British churches were present, the English delegation including three future bishops and John Hales, chaplain to the ambassador. A new Dutch version of the Bible was commissioned, and arrangements were made for a new catechism and for the censorship of books. Five sets of articles were approved, asserting the doctrines of election not dependent on belief, limited atonement (for the elect only), the total depravity of man, irresistible grace, and the impossibility of the elect’s falling into sin. The authority of the belgic confession and the heidelberg catechism was also endorsed. As a result of this sweeping victory for Calvinism, many Arminian ministers were deprived, grotius was imprisoned, and oldenbarneveldt beheaded.
Dossi, Dosso (Giovanni di Luteri)
(c. 1480-1542) Italian painter
He was born in Mantua or Ferrara but little is known about his early life. The romantic approach to landscape that is particularly apparent in his early work indicates the influence of giorgione. He may also have had contact with titian. By 1512 he had left Venice for Mantua, where with his elder brother Battista (died 1548) he carried out for the duke of Mantua decorations which revealed the possible influence of correggio. In 1517 the brothers were working for Alfonso I, Duke of Ferrara, producing tapestries and entertainments, the latter with the poet ar-iosto. Although Dosso Dossi has been accused of poor draftsmanship he was the leading figure in the school of Ferrara in the 16th century. One of his most famous paintings, Circe (1530; Galleria Borghese, Rome) is an example of the mysterious atmosphere he was able to create with effects of light. The equally well-known Circe and her Lovers in a Landscape (National Gallery, Washington), the second version of an earlier painting, is an example of his later work with rich exotic landscapes. Dossi died in Fer-rara.
Douai
A Flemish town (formerly in the Spanish Netherlands, now in France) particularly associated in the Counter-Reformation period with the college established there in 1568 by William allen for the training of English Roman Catholic priests. The college’s printing press was active in producing Roman Catholic tracts, and its scholars were responsible for the Reims-Douai translation of the Vulgate into English (New Testament 1582, Old Testament 1609). A number of the priests associated with Douai were captured and executed on their clandestine missions to England to support the Catholics there and recall the Protestants to the Catholic faith. Among them were Cuthbert Mayne, the first priest to be executed (1577), and Edmund campion, who were both at Douai in the 1570s.
Douglas, Gavin
(c. 1474-1522) Scottish churchman and poet
The son of the fifth earl of Angus, Douglas studied at St. Andrews University (1489-94), received his first ecclesiastical appointment in 1496, and became provost of St. Giles, Edinburgh, about five years later. The allegorical poems The Palace of Honour and King Hart (the latter possibly not by Douglas) were not published until long after his death, but were probably written between 1501 and 1513. His translation of virgil’s Aeneid into Scots, the first version of the poem made in Britain, was completed in July 1513, but not published until 1553. Douglas’s prologues to each book of the Aeneid are some of his finest original verse, and the translation itself, in vigorous heroic couplets, makes up in energy what it lacks in accuracy (see translations of classical authors). After James IV’s death at the battle of Flodden (1513), Douglas’s career was embroiled in politics, and he was only installed as bishop of Dunkeld (1516) with much help from the widowed queen. Further upheavals sent him into exile in London (1521), where he died.
Dowland, John
(1563-1626) English composer and lutenist
Dowland is first mentioned as being in the service of Sir Henry Cobham, ambassador (1579-83) to France. While there he converted to Catholicism. After his return to England, probably in 1584, Dowland’s music was performed at court, but on the rejection of his application for the post of queen’s lutenist (1594) he went abroad again, traveling through Germany and Italy. In 1596 or 1597 he was back in England and published his First Booke of Songes or Ayres of Foure Partes with Tableturefor the Lute (1597), an anthology of songs for solo voice and lute or four-part ayres; it was very popular and reprinted at least four times. By November 18, 1598 Dowland was lutenist at the court of Christian IV of Denmark, where he remained until his dismissal in 1606.
After his return to England, Dowland entered the service of Lord Walden. Though at this time he complained of neglect and criticism from younger lutenists, Dowland was enjoying considerable respect and popularity both in England and on the Continent. His famous Lachrymae (1605) was widely used in arrangements by other composers, and references to it in contemporary theatrical and literary works reflect its enormous popularity. He was finally appointed one of the king’s lutes in 1612. Dowland wrote many attractive dance tunes and fantasias, but is chiefly remembered for his melancholy songs, in which chromaticism and discord are used to great effect.
Drake, Sir Francis
(c. 1540-1596) English sea captain and popular hero of the Elizabethan age
Drake first became rich and famous through his exploits against Spain in the Caribbean (1567-68) and in 1572 he received a royal commission as a privateer. With elizabeth i’s support he led the first English expedition to circumnavigate the world (1577-80), bringing back with him on the Golden Hind a rich cargo of treasure and spices seized from the Spaniards. The queen recognized the feat by coming on board his ship to knight him. In 1585 Drake led another successful expedition against Spain in the New World, and in 1587 his raid on cadiz ("singeing the king of Spain’s beard") cost the Spaniards thousands of tons of shipping and supplies. Drake played a prominent part in the defeat of the spanish armada (1588). He died of fever off Panama, while leading yet another attack on Spain’s overseas empire.
Drawing
In Europe, drawing as an independent art form arrived with the availability of paper during the early Renaissance and was coincident with a change in artistic style. Prior to the 15th century, composition was strongly conventional, both in subject and form. Every workshop used a model-book—a collection of figures, motifs, and outline compositions that were to be copied. Very much a working tool, the model-book would be passed from master to pupil, from workshop to workshop, and, when worn out, thrown away. Consequently, few model-books survive today. Likewise, drawings of this early period tended to disappear under finished work. When materials were expensive and paper a rarity, trial sketches were made on wax tablets or on slates, to be later erased. Even as paper gradually became more available, and artists were enabled to make more trial studies before beginning a painting, these studies were still commonly considered to be of no value and were usually thrown out.
The International Gothic style of the 14th century broke with traditional forms and moved toward freer artistic expression; artists in the new style tended to guard their model-books more jealously and keep them as records of their own innovations and experimentation. A fundamental change in this period, one that underlies the whole concept of "renaissance," was that artists began to take forms and figures from life, rather than copying previous works and models.
The sketchbook of Giovannino de’ Grassi (1390; Bib-lioteca Ciivica, Bergamo) shows what were perhaps the first representations of real animals since antiquity. In this period of transition, however, Grassi’s revolutionary studies from life merely became models themselves for his contemporaries to copy. It is with pisanello in the first half of the 15th century that studies in motion begin. His drawings of horses, precursors to those of leonardo da vinci, show animals that are not only anatomically correct but imbued with vital spirit. Pisanello was the first artist to capture human likeness full face rather than in the customary profile, and it is in one of Pisanello’s surviving sketchbooks that we find the first surviving drawn study for a major painting.
Styles in drawing varied from artist to artist. Leonardo’s drawings are those of a painter; michelangelo’s those of a sculptor, and durer’s those of an engraver. In each is reflected the techniques of the primary discipline: the brush, the chisel, or the burin. At first drawing on parchment or paper was done with silver-point—a metal style tipped with silver. This was the pencil before the discovery of graphite, and it required a surface prepared with bone and gesso. It was a difficult and merciless medium.
Cennino Cennini’s handbook Libro dell’arte (c. 1390s; earliest known manuscript dated 1437) presents drawing as a system of training for apprentices, the "entrance and gateway" to painting. As Cennino advised, "start to copy the easiest possible subjects, to get your hand in; and run the style over the little panel so lightly that you can hardly make out what you first start to do; strengthening your strokes little by little, going back many times to produce the shadows." He describes how to draw on parchment and paper, prepared in a simlar way to the panel, beginning with the silverpoint and then fixing it with ink at the points of accent and stress. "Then shade the folds with washes of ink; that is, as much water as a nutshell would hold, with two drops of ink in it; and shade with a brush made of minever tails, rather blunt, and almost always dry." Lead was also used, which had the advantage of being erasable.
From working with styles and pens, the student moved on to drawing on paper or parchment that had been tinted, using the techniques of tempera, the most popular color being green. This progression from study to finished painting mirrored the progression from apprentice to master painter. The artist began by making rough outlines in chalk or charcoal, to be fixed with silverpoint; subsequently the shadows were filled in with tonal washes and highlights made with chalk.
In fresco painting, the preparatory drawings would be taken from full-size cartoons, the outlines of which were pricked with pins; charcoal was pounced through the holes to form an outline on the wall. The first outlines in paint were made in a red ochre called sinopia.
When drawings were purely utilitarian preparations for paintings, they tended to be made in charcoal or chalk that could be dusted away as the study developed, with outlines being made in ink and tonal areas with ink washes and white highlights. This was the main technique of the 15th century, but artists of the High Renaissance began to explore the tonal possibilities of colored chalk on tinted paper, a supreme example being Durer’s Praying Hands. Red chalk, first used by Leonardo, became a favorite medium of artists such as Michelangelo and raphael.
The view that drawing was a preliminary to painting prevailed until Leonardo. In his notebooks, filled with sketches in pen and ink, he wrote of the need for a fresh approach to drawing: what matters, he said, is not a tidy finish but to capture the spirit of the subject. Drawing was a medium particularly preferred by Tuscan artists but eventually it was adopted in northern Italian schools. In the academy of the carracci drawing was systematically cultivated. Although it had always been used in northern Europe as preparatory to painting, and, later, engraving, it is with Durer and the younger holbein that drawing reached its full flowering in the north.
Drawing as an independent art form was not properly established until the 16th century, when collectors provided a market. Such was Michelangelo’s fame that his admirers asked him for drawings, seeing them as works of art in themselves. At the same time vasari was recommending the idea of collecting drawings as a record of the various styles of artists. Many of the collections begun in the 16th century now reside in museums such as the Louvre in Paris, the British Museum in London, and the Ash-molean Museum in Oxford. The largest collections of Leonardo and Holbein drawings form part of the Royal Collection at Windsor Castle.
