Comes, Juan Bautista
(1568-1643) Spanish composer Comes began his musical education at the cathedral of Valencia where he was a chorister and a pupil of Gines Perez. In 1605 he was appointed choirmaster at the cathedral of Lerida and in 1613 he became the choirmaster of Valencia cathedral. In 1619 he entered the service of Philip III in Madrid, returning to Valencia after 10 years when he resumed his post as choirmaster. The most notable of Comes’s surviving compositions, which amount to around 250 pieces, are his villancicos, sacred songs based on secular polychoral arrangements.
Commandino, Federico
(1509-1575) Italian humanist and mathematician
Born into a noble family at Urbino, Commandino, after studying philosophy and medicine at Padua university, returned to his native land as tutor and physician at the court of the duke of Urbino. More importantly, Com-mandino began to collect and to translate into Latin the major surviving texts of Greek mathematics. Beginning in 1558 with an edition of Archimedes, Commandino went on to issue Latin translations of the Conics of Apollonius (1566), the Elements of Euclid (1572), and the Pneumatics of Hero (1575). He also wrote an original treatise on the center of gravity of solid bodies (1565). At his death Com-mandino was working on an Italian translation of Euclid’s Elements.
Commedia dell’arte
(Italian, "comedy of the craft") The improvisational comedy that takes its name from the actor’s craft, in the sense of both his technique and the guild of actors. Created by Italian theatrical troups, it flourished from the mid-16th to the end of the 18th centuries. A number of stereotyped characters were played by actors who specialized in particular roles and performed extempore from a three-act scenario that provided a mere outline of the proceedings. The emphasis was on broad comic action with all manner of theatrical business, including acrobatics, and a traditional stock of verbal and visual jests (lazzi). The characters were readily identifiable: Pantalone, the grasping Venetian merchant; Graziano, the pedantic Bolognese lawyer; the miles gloriosus, or braggart soldier, often a Spaniard (Captain Matamoros); lovers whose language was Petrarchan and Tuscan; comically coarse female servants (Franceschina); and a number of zanni (zanies, buffoons). The Bergamask Arlecchino and Neapolitan Pulcinella survive as Harlequin and Punch. The masked actors drew on a variety of sources and traditions and developed an enormous repertoire of dialogue and gesture. Since actors also performed in the commedia erudita, literary theater was both enriched by and was a source for the commedia dell’arte. Guilds—for example, the Gelosi, Desiosi, Confidenti, Uniti, Accesi—were formed in the mid-16th century (the first recorded in 1545) and they spread the influence of the commedia dell’arte throughout Europe. Distinguished, highly respected, and academically honored actors and families of actors—for example, Francesco and Isabella Andreini and the nobleman Flaminio Scala—directed some of the com-media dell’arte companies.
Commedia erudita (Italian, "erudite comedy")
Italian vernacular comedy of the 16th century that imitated the Latin comedies of Plautus and Terence. While the action, construction, and certain stock characters were derived from the Roman models, and the unities of time (a single day) and place were observed, the settings were contemporary Italian urban ones; the actions involved more than one plot and these drew on a wealth of postclassical stories and novellas as well as on the Latin sources. Typically the problems faced by lovers are finally resolved in marriage after much intrigue and trickery involving mistaken identities and disguises, conniving servants and other clever, shady, or gullible comic types. Major examples of the commedia erudita are La cassaria (The Coffer; 1508) by ariosto, La calandria (The Follies of Calandro; 1513) by bibbiena, and La mandragola (The Mandrake Root; 1518) by machiavelli. La calandria and Plautus’s Menaechmi respectively provided inspiration for firenzuola’s La triu-nizia and I lucidi (both 1549). Later examples tend to have more intricate plots, to develop moral and romantic elements, and to show the increasing influence of the com-media dell’arte. Among the many writers of the type are Francesco d’Ambra (1499-1558), who wrote the prose play Il Furto (acted 1544) and I Bernardi and La cofanaria (acted 1547/65) in verse, Anton Francesco grazzini, Giovanni Maria Cecchi (1518-87), Pietro aretino, Annibale caro, and Giambattista della porta.
Common Life, Brothers and Sisters of the The name adopted by the followers of Gerard (Geert) Groote (1340-84) of Deventer, a widely traveled Carthusian monk and mystic based in Holland. The Brethren of the Common Life were a quasi monastic association of laity and secular clergy dedicated to the cultivation of inner spirituality and good works. Their classic statement of belief is encapsulated in the Imitatio Christi (Imitation of Christ; c. 1418), attributed to Thomas a Kempis (c. 13801471), the most celebrated Christian mystical work ever written and widely read during his lifetime. Although essentially medieval and conservative, the book was to have lasting significance in its tendency to personalize religion and minimize the importance of formal Christianity. Another influential book that had its origins in the movement was the Spieghel der Volcomenheit, a treatise on mystical theology by Henricus Herp (died 1477), who later joined the Franciscans; it was translated into Latin and thence into several European languages. The brethren’s emphasis on inner spirituality greatly influenced Christian humanists and some of the reformers; Nicholas cusanus and Rudolf agricola were among the influential figures in the first wave of northern European humanists who were members. Both erasmus and luther were educated by members of the movement, which was at its peak during the second half of the 15th century.
Communications
The improvement in trade and transport during the Renaissance was modest compared to that of later centuries. Travel by land and sea was still slow and dangerous. At sea most ships hugged the Mediterranean or northern coasts, but improved navigation and ship design in the 15th century made sailors bolder. The development of the sea-going caravel by Portugal (from about 1430) opened the way for the exploration of the world’s oceans. By the late 16th century Europe was part of a global network of maritime communications.
Major rivers like the Po, Adige, Ebro, and Rhine were still prime routes for travel and trade, but were becoming unpopular because of frequent tolls, marked by chains stretched across the river. Canals existed but were used mainly for local drainage or irrigation, and their usefulness for transportation was limited; not only was upkeep on them very expensive, but until the invention of the lock to raise and lower boats they could only run over level areas. Although such devices possibly existed in the Netherlands in the 14th century, there is an early documented instance of a lock in 1438-39 in northern Italy, and one of leonardo da vinci’s engineering feats was to construct six locks linking the canals of Milan.
Travel by land was slow; at best a traveler covered 60 miles in 24 hours. A third of that distance was more normal. Speediest of all were the professional courier services which were developed where more settled conditions allowed, mainly from the mid-15th century. These relied on regular changes of horse at establishments set up for the purpose ("post houses"). Such a service was beyond the means of most individuals and was the prerogative of governments or wealthy trading companies. Most travellers were pedestrians, sometimes with pack animals. Some roads were improved by paving, especially near big cities, and with adequate hostelries and policing roads could be tolerably pleasant, but most were muddy tracks, full of potholes and vulnerable to brigands. Vehicles were improved by movable front axles in the late 15th century and the first coaches appeared in the late 16th century.
Complutensian Polyglot
(1522) A six-volume Spanish edition of the Bible that made the text available for the first time in parallel columns of Greek, Latin, and Hebrew. Begun in 1502, it was edited and financed by Cardinal Francisco ximenes de cisneros, who was Queen Isabella’s confessor and the founder of the university of Alcala (Latin name: Complutum), the town after which this Bible is known. The Complutensian Polyglot is an outstanding early example of humanist scholarship employed in the service of religious reform within the Catholic Church.
Comuneros, Revolt of the
(1520-21) The rebellion of the Spanish nobility and commoners against their Flemish-born king, Charles I (Emperor charles v). On his first visit to Spain (1517), the new king enraged the nobles by his partiality for his Flemish advisers, upset the commoners by making heavy financial demands, and united the two parties against him by his manifest intention of ruling Spain as an absentee while pursuing his European ambitions. Open disaffection broke out in 1520, and for a time Charles’s position seemed seriously threatened. The king however managed to win round part of the malcontent aristocracy, certain towns, notably Seville, remained loyal, and after a defeat was inflicted on the rebels at Villalar in April 1521, the revolt collapsed, leaving Charles with enhanced power and prestige.
concetto (Italian, literally, "concept" or "idea")
From the 17th century a term also having the specialized meaning "literary conceit," essentially an elaborate and striking metaphor drawing a parallel between two very unlike objects, qualities, or experiences. Two types are usually distinguished: the Petrarchan conceit, as employed by petrarch in his love poems, by his imitators (for example, the French and Elizabethan sonneteers), and by tasso; and the metaphysical conceit, especially associated with the verse of John Donne and the English Metaphysical poets. The Petrarchan figure typically compares the beloved’s beauty (or the lover’s emotions) to very dissimilar concrete objects, often with hyperbolic exaggeration. In many of Petrarch’s imitators, this amounts to nothing more than the trite and conventional love imagery which shakespeare deflates in his sonnet beginning "My mistress’ eyes are nothing like the sun."
Concord, Book of (1580)
The publication comprising the Lutheran statement of doctrine known as the Formula of concord, the three ecumenical creeds, Luther’s two catechisms, the Confession of augsburg, the Apology for the Confession of Augsburg, and the schmalkaldic articles. The book was accepted by 86 rulers, princes, and imperial cities, but rejected by many others, including the king of Denmark who threw his copy into the fire. It was first published in German at Dresden, and a Latin edition appeared in 1584.
Concord, Formula of
(March 1577) A formulation of Lutheran faith. Its original inspiration lay in a series of articles by Jakob Andreae (1528-90) that had resulted in the Swabian-Saxon Formula of Concord (1575) and the Tor-gau Book (1576). The Formula of Concord clarified the Lutheran position concerning doctrines associated with melanchthon and calvin by rejecting the former’s doctrine of the Eucharist and the Calvinist doctrine of double predestination. It proved to be only a partial settlement of Lutheran debates since many Lutherans, especially those outside Germany, rejected its conclusions, including the king of Denmark and several important cities. For this reason the Formula never possessed the authority of the Confession of augsburg.
Condottieri
Mercenaries employed by Italian states under the system of condotte ("contracts"). Initially they were mainly foreigners, but condottieri of Italian origin grew in number as men like Niccolo piccinino, Francesco Sforza (see sforza family), and Bartolommeo colleoni realized the financial and social opportunities afforded by mercenary activity. Facino cane in Milan during the rule (1402-12) of the weak Giovanni Maria Visconti is a prime example of the over-powerful condottiere. Condottieri came from all classes. They were regarded, in machi-avelli’s venomous criticism of the system, as treacherous and dedicated to the perpetuation of strife. They studied war as an art, relying mainly on cavalry armed with lances, and their heyday passed with the development of infantry and artillery in warfare.
confession
The Christian Church has always insisted that sins must be both acknowledged and denounced by the sinner who seeks reconciliation with God. By the early Renaissance period, it was standard practice to confess sins in private to a priest. The priest, having been given powers of distributing forgiveness (absolution) at ordination, stipulated a penalty (penance) for the sinner, and formally announced that the sinner’s transgressions had been forgiven. Absolved sinners were properly and demonstrably to quash their ungodly habits (repentance).
Protestant reformers did not credit the ritual of confession with sacramental power and criticized it as a sideshow that distracted believers from communicating directly with an always accessible God. luther complained that the process increased communities’ awe for and reliance on a priesthood that was arrogantly usurping a forgiving role that only Christ could rightly exercise. The Protestants ultimately rejected formal private confession, believing that public, collective liturgies at religious ceremonies were adequate to demonstrate believers’ shame at their sins.
conquistadores (Spanish, "conquerors")
Spanish soldiers of fortune who overthrew the native American Indian civilizations of Central and South America in the 16th century and claimed their lands for Spain. Their exploits are recounted in the Spanish new world chronicles. Preeminent among them were Hernan cortes, who conquered Mexico, and Francisco pizarro, conqueror of Peru.
Consensus Tigurinus See Zurich agreement
Constance, Council of (1414-17) The Church council convoked at Constance in southern Germany by Pope John XXIII, at the insistence of Emperor Sigismund. It is an important landmark in the history of the movement for conciliar government of the Church, and in 1415 it declared itself a "general council," that is the supreme authority within Christendom, over and above that of popes. When the council convened in 1414 there were three cardinally elected popes, one in Rome, one at Avignon, and one at Pisa. The council was successful in ending this state of affairs, the great schism (see avignon, papacy at), by deposing two of the contending popes and ensuring the abdication of the third. In their place the council promoted Oddone Colonna as Martin V (pope 1417-31).
In accordance with the wishes of Sigismund, the council took action against the potentially heretical and revolutionary Bohemian hussites. Employing its newfound authority the council condemned and executed the movement’s leaders, Jan huss and Jerome of Prague. When the council dissolved itself (1417) it left as its legacy legislation that made possible the claims of supremacy made by Church councils during the next 50 years. Although power was restored in full to the papacy by the end of the century, the Council of Constance had demonstrated papal fallibility, and support for representative conciliar government remained.
Constantinople (formerly Byzantium, now Istanbul)
The city on the European shores of the Bosphorus straits, now in Turkey. Its commanding position at the entrance to the Black Sea ensured its commercial and strategic significance ever since its foundation as the Greek colony of Byzantium in 667 bce. It was refounded by Constantine the Great in 330 ad as Constantinopolis, the New Rome in the East. When the Roman empire split in 395 ce, Constantinople became the capital of the eastern part. Theological differences and rivalry between the patriarchate in Constantinople and the papacy in Rome led to schism in 1054. In 1204 forces of the Fourth Crusade, under Venetian leadership, sacked Constantinople. Attempts were made to heal the breach at the councils of Lyons (1276) and Florence (1439), but Western Christendom lacked the will to come to the aid of the Byzantine emperor in the face of the growing threat from the ottoman turks. In 1453 Constantinople fell to the forces of Sultan Mehmet II ("the Conqueror").
Diplomatic contacts between Constantinople and the West in the 14th and early 15th centuries first alerted Western scholars to the treasures of classical Greek literature that had been preserved by Byzantine copyists; envoys from the East tarried in Italy to teach Greek to local scholars and these scholars sometimes visited Constantinople and returned home laden with Greek manuscripts (see aurispa, giovanni; filelfo, francesco). As the Turks advanced, learned refugees from former Byzantine lands fled westwards, bringing with them their knowledge of Greek.
Constantinople This panorama by Pieter Coecke van Aelst, based on a drawing made during his visit in 1533, shows the western European’s interest in the antiquities and buildings of the great city and the exotic appearance of its inhabitants.
Once Constantinople was under Turkish rule few westerners were enthusiastic about attempting to regain it for Christendom, despite some papal efforts to muster a crusade in the 1450s and 1460s; most people were much more concerned about the threat nearer home, as the Ottomans menaced the heartland of Europe. Nonetheless, there was some limited contact between Constantinople and the West during the 16th century. The mercantile nations such as England saw it as a promising destination for trading missions, while other visitors, such as Pieter coecke van aelst, who went there in 1533, were interested in observing the exotic dress and rituals of the sultan’s court. Diplomats who wrote of their experiences all remarked on the elaborate protocol that governed reception at the sublime porte. Merchants from the West were keen to establish trading privileges that would enable them to obtain the luxury items for which the Ottoman capital was famous in the 16th century: textiles, carpets, and ceramics. The Turks’ liking for sophisticated automata, often incorporating clocks, meant in turn that there was a ready outlet for items from European workshops such as a clockwork model of a Turkish ship made in Augsburg around 1585; it had two rowers, a monkey on the prow, and an admiral pasha standing on top of the cabin (the actual clock), all of which moved on the hour or quarter-hour. As a diplomatic overture from England in 1599 Queen Elizabeth dispatched the organ-builder Thomas Dallam with one of his instruments as a gift for the sultan. Artistic contacts date from near the start of the Ottoman period when Mehmet II invited the Venetian Gentile Bellini (c. 1429-1507) to live at his court (1479-81); Bellini’s portrait of the sultan is in the National Gallery, London. However, it was artists in the entourages of ambassadors who were the prime means by which images of Ottoman Constantinople were transmitted to the West. One such was Nicolas de Nicolay, who visited in 1551 as part of Henry II of France’s embassy to the sultan; he wrote a successful and much-translated book about his stay in Constantinople, illustrated with engravings that formed the stock images of Turks in the Western imagination for many years. Melchior Lorichs, who probably accompanied Ogier Ghislain de busbecq in 1555, drew the architectural monuments of the city as well as producing figure studies and a portrait of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent.
Contado
The territory adjoining an Italian city that was subject to the laws and taxes of that city.
Contarini, Cardinal Gasparo
(1483-1542) Italian Catholic reformer
Born into a leading Venetian family, Contarini studied philosophy and natural science at Padua before turning to theology. He experienced a spiritual conversion in 1511 and remained throughout his life sympathetic to Erasmian doctrine and humanist principles. In 1518 he became an ambassador and developed a profound knowledge of Rome and the imperial court. Having been made a cardinal (1535) by paul iii, in 1536 he was appointed head of a commission designed to initiate reform of the Church. In his work as commissioner and as papal legate at regens-burg (1541) it is evident that Contarini failed fully to appreciate the fundamental spiritual conflict between Protestant and Catholic in his assumption that formal reorganization of the Church, coupled with certain concessions to the Lutheran doctrine of justification by faith, would achieve reconciliation. Criticized on account of his Epistola de justificatione (1541) as a "crypto-Lutheran" and embittered by his failure at Regensburg, Contarini died the following year. Although he never shared in the true spirit of the coming counter-reformation, Con-tarini played a part through his keen support of ignatius loyola during the early 1540s. Besides works on theological topics and ecclesiastical reform, Contarini wrote (1523/24) a renowned book on Venetian statecraft, De magistratibus et republica Venetorum (1543); it was translated into English in 1599 and became a key text in debates on the optimum form of political constitution.
Conti, Niccolo dei
(c. 1395-1469) Italian traveler Born in Chioggia, in Venetian territory, he spent the years between 1415 and c. 1439 traveling in the Middle East, India, and Southeast Asia. Forced at one point to convert to Islam to save his life, he applied on his return to Italy for absolution from the pope and was interrrogated at length by the pope’s secretary Poggio bracciolini, who wrote down his story and published it as an illustration of the fickleness of fortune in his Historia de varietate fortu-nae (1448). In later life Conti held various official posts in the Venetian state. The first printed edition of his narrative appeared in Milan in 1492; translations into Portuguese (1502) and Spanish (1503) followed. The Italian version in ramusio’s collection (1550) was widely circulated but has many errors.
Contrapposto
A pose, used especially in sculpture in the round, in which the torso of a sculpted figure is twisted and its weight thrown onto one leg. This device was developed originally by the ancient Greeks in the fifth century bce and later revived in Renaissance Italy by leonardo da vinci and others, being employed to great effect in michelangelo’s David (Accademia, Florence). The pose was equally adapted to draped or nude figures and introduced both tension and realism, with an aesthetically interesting play of light on the different angles and masses of the sculpture. It was used at an early date by do-natello and verrocchio, and exaggerated contrapposto (figura serpentinata) became a favorite device of the mannerist sculptors such as cellini and giambologna.
Conversos
In Spain, Jews who had converted to Christianity. Although conversos and descendants of conversos, such as Alvaro de luna, rose to high office in 14th- and 15th-century Spain, antisemitism was a constant factor and was institutionalized in the persecutions conducted by the spanish inquisition. Curiously, some of the most zealous persecutors of the Jews were themselves of con-verso stock—the antipope Benedict XIII (Pedro de Luna; died 1423) and torquemada, to name but two. Particularly at risk were the marranos, professed converts, either Jews or Moors, who continued to practice their ancestral religion in secret.
