Calvaert, Denys (Dionisio Fiammingo)
(1540-1619) Flemish-born painter
Calvaert emigrated from his native Antwerp as a young man and around 1560 he was studying in Bologna under Prospero Fontana. After a short spell in Rome in the early 1570s, working on the Vatican, Calvaert returned to spend the rest of his life in Bologna, where he opened a very influential painting academy. Guido reni was among his numerous pupils.
Calvin, John
(1509-1564) French reformer Calvin was born at Noyon, Picardy, and was intended from an early age for a career in the Church. He spent six years studying in Paris (1523-28), mostly at the ultra-orthodox College de Montaigu, before moving to the more liberal atmosphere of the university of Orleans. In 1532 he published his first book, a commentary on Seneca’s De clemen-tia, a choice of subject which demonstrates the extent of his early interest in humanism and classical scholarship. His conversion to Protestantism occurred suddenly, probably in 1533; the following year he left France and settled in Basle in Switzerland. In 1536 he published Christianae religionis institutio (The Institutes of the Christian Religion, popularly known as the institutes), a book which immediately established his own reputation among the reformers. A visit to Geneva this same year resulted in an invitation to remain and assist the local reformer, Guil-laume farel, in his work; but Calvin and Farel soon alienated the local populace, and in 1538 they were expelled from the city. Calvin settled in Strasbourg, where he acted as minister to the small French church in exile and observed with approval Martin bucer’s work in the city; he was able to put this experience to good use, when, in 1541, he was asked to return to Geneva.
Calvin acted quickly to assert his authority. His Ecclesiastical Ordinances (1541) defined the powers of the pastors and established the authority of the consistory, the assembly of pastors and laymen (elders) which exercised control over morals and doctrine within the city. Calvin’s austere discipline inevitably aroused opposition, which reached its climax with the trial of Michael servetus (1553) and the exiling of the leading "Libertines" in 1555. Thereafter Calvin’s authority in Geneva was unchallenged, and he enjoyed a steadily growing international influence. A tireless writer, Calvin published numerous biblical commentaries and smaller dogmatic works. He also re-edited the Institutes, which became by the time of the definitive 1559 edition a complete systematic theology of the Calvinist Reformation. His treatise on predestination, regarded as his characteristic doctrine, was published in 1552.
Calvinism
The system of theology based on the teachings of John calvin, the reformer of Geneva. Calvin shared with luther a belief in the centrality of the Bible, the denial of human free will, and the doctrine of justification by faith alone. To these Calvin added double predestination, the notion that God had predestined some to salvation and others to damnation. This doctrine, given greater emphasis still in the teaching of Calvin’s successor beza, came in time to be the touchstone of Calvinist orthodoxy. On Eucharistic doctrine Calvin took a middle position between the symbolism of zwingli and the more conservative teaching of Luther, gaining the support of the other leading Swiss churches in the important zurich agreement (1549). Calvin favored a strongly theocratic church polity, and his model of church government for Geneva (the Ecclesiastical Ordinances, 1541) proved extremely influential as Calvinism spread through Europe in the later part of the 16th century.
Important Calvinist churches were established in France (where the huguenots were of this persuasion), in the Netherlands (where Calvinism became the official state religion of the United Provinces in 1622), in Scotland, and in Eastern Europe. In England Calvinist theology exercised a significant influence on the doctrinal development of the Anglican Church (in the thirty-nine articles). It also took a firm hold among the early nonconformist groups, who carried it with them to North America.
Camaldolese Chart
A world map commissioned in 1457 by King Afonso V of Portugal from the Italian cartographer Fra Mauro (died 1460). It was produced in the Camaldolese monastery on the island of Murano, Venice, and incorporates information drawn from the voyages of Marco Polo and the exploration sponsored by henry the navigator within the circular format of the ancient mappa mundi. Completed in 1459, it measures 6 feet 4 inches (190 cm) in diameter and is housed in the Marciana library, Venice.
Cambiaso, Luca
(1527-1585) Italian painter The son of the painter Giovanni Cambiaso, Luca was born at Moneglia, near Genoa. He became the first, and most important, master of a native Genoese school of painters. The vivacity of his early pictures reflects the speed and impetuosity with which he is said to have worked, without the usual preparatory drawing and even painting large areas with both hands at once. The frescoes and oils painted in his maturity show greater moderation and are more graceful in style, but he continued to develop a simplification of form, which in his drawings almost resembles cubism. Like Beccafumi, he often used light to dramatize his subjects, as in The Virgin with a Candle (c. 1570; Palazzo Bianco, Genoa). Cambiaso spent the last two years of his life decorating the escorial with large frescoes at the invitation of Philip II of Spain; he died in Madrid.
Cambrai, League of
(1508) An alliance formed at Cam-brai in northeast France by Emperor maximilian i, louis xii of France, and ferdinand ii of Aragon, nominally against the Turks, but really in order to dismember the Venetian empire. It was joined by the pope and the dukes of Mantua and Ferrara, all of whom had territorial disputes with Venice. After some initial successes, beginning at Agnadello (1509), the league began to collapse in 1510, owing to the defection of the pope and Ferdinand, and by 1517 Venice had won back virtually all the territory it had lost.
Camden, William
(1551-1623) English antiquarian and educationist
Born into a London painter’s family, Camden attended St. Paul’s School before going to Oxford (1566-71). Patrons in London then supported his antiquarian researches until his appointment as second master at Westminster School (1575). This post, and his subsequent headmastership (1593-97) left him free time for extensive journeys researching his monumental topographical work Britannia (1586; 6th edition, much enlarged, 1607). This county-by-county survey was written in Latin and translated by Philemon Holland into English in 1610. In 1597 Camden was made Clarenceux King of Arms. He died at Chisle-hurst after a long illness. Besides Britannia, his life’s work, he also published Annales (1615).
Camerarius, Joachim
(1500-1574) German scholar Camerarius, who was born in Bamberg, was a child prodigy. He studied Greek at Leipzig, then went to Wittenberg, attracted by the reputations of Luther and Philipp melanchthon; he became the latter’s close friend and biographer. In 1524 he published a Latin translation of Demosthenes’ first Olynthiac Oration; the next year his commentary on Cicero’s Tusculan Disputations brought him into contact with erasmus. The wars of religion then forced him to leave Wittenberg and in 1526 Melanchthon made him professor of Greek and Latin at the new Protestant college in Nuremberg. In 1530 he attended the Diet of Augsburg and collaborated on the formulation of the augsburg Confession. A moderate voice in Lutheranism, even as late as 1568 he was discussing with Emperor maximilian ii the possibility of a Catholic-Protestant rapprochement. He moved subsequently to Tubingen (1535) and to Leipzig (1541), where he died.
Camerarius was one of the leaders of the Renaissance in Germany, combining the roles of scholar, theologian, and diplomat. He made a significant contribution in many areas but his most lasting work was the many editions and translations of Greek and Latin authors he produced throughout a long working life; notable among these are his Greek editions of Ptolemy’s Tetrabiblos (1535) and Almagest (1538; with Simon Grynaeus) and the first complete modern edition of the works of the Roman playwright Plautus (1552).
Camillus of Lellis, St.
(1550-1614) Italian priest, founder of the Servants of the Sick (Camillians) Born in Abruzzi, he served in the Venetian army against the Turks, lost his fortune by gambling, and was employed (1574) as a laborer by the Capuchins. He tried to join their order and the Franciscan Recollects, but was rejected owing to ill health. He became bursar of a hospital in Rome, and, under the spiritual guidance of St. philip neri, became a priest in 1584 and established a congregation of priests and lay brothers, dedicated to nursing. As superior-general of this congregation until 1607, he did much to improve hospital methods and hygiene and to provide proper nursing and spiritual care for the dying. The Camillians won papal approval in 1586, and Camillus himself was canonized in 1746.
Caminha, Pero Vaz de
(c. 1449-1500) Portuguese traveler
Caminha was born and lived most of his life in Oporto, where from 1476 he held the post of master of the mint. In 1500 he sailed with cabral’s fleet for India in the capacity of a writer. His letter (Carta) reporting to King Manuel I on the Tupinamba Indians of "Vera Cruz" (Brazil) is an accomplished and classic piece of encounter literature. The discovery was considered so significant that Cabral dispatched a ship back to Portugal with it, though it remained unpublished until 1817. Caminha died at Calicut, on the Malabar coast of India, in December 1500.
Camoes, Luis Vaz de
(1524-1580) Portuguese poet Many details of Camoes’s life are based on guesswork. Born in Lisbon, he appears to have been one of the old Galician aristocracy, impoverished but with prominent connections. He may have been educated at Coimbra: his work indicates a thorough classical education. He was at the court of John III in Lisbon in 1544. His love for a lady-in-waiting, Caterina de Ataide (called "Natercia" in his lyrics), was opposed by her family, who forced his withdrawal from the court. About this time he was writing lyrics and three plays, two in the native tradition of Gil vicente (El Rei Seleuco, Filodemo) and a comedy in the manner of the Roman playwright Plautus (Enfatrioes). After taking part in an expedition to Morocco, where he lost an eye in battle, he returned to Lisbon in an unsuccessful attempt to regain royal favor. In 1553 John III pardoned him for being involved in a street brawl in which a minor palace official died; the pardon contains hints that Camoes was to go to India in the service of the Crown. He was in the East until 1570, where he experienced shipwreck and the other common dangers faced by Portuguese adventurers of the time. He completed his masterpiece, Os Lusiadas (the lusiad; 1572), soon after returning to Lisbon and was granted a small pension by King Sebastian for his services in India. He died in poverty in an epidemic in Lisbon.
Although Camoes was perhaps the greatest lyric poet of the Iberian peninsula and a master of the main Renaissance lyric forms (sonnets, odes, canzone [canfoes], eclogues, and elegies), virtually all of his non-epic poetry was published posthumously (1595; an expanded edition, Rimas, appeared in 1598). These early editions contained a number of unauthentic poems and only since the 1930s have there been attempts at critical editions of his complete works.
Campagnola, Giulio
(c. 1482-c. 1518) Italian engraver Born in Padua, Campagnola trained under Andrea man-tegna and by 1499 was executing work for the Ferrarese ducal court. His copies of works by durer popularized the latter throughout Italy, while his own technique anticipated later schools of engraving. He was also much influenced by giorgione and engraved several prints after his paintings. By 1509 Campagnola was working in Venice; his pupils included his adopted son Domenico Campagnola (c. 1484-c. 1563), also an engraver, who painted frescoes in the Sinola del Carmine, Padua (1520) and produced fine drawings of landscapes.
Campana, Pedro de (Pieter de Kempeneer)
(15031580) Flemish artist
Although he was born in Brussels, Campana spent considerable time in Italy, where he worked at Bologna, Venice, and elsewhere. By 1537 he had moved to Seville. There he executed religious paintings for the cathedral, notably the Descent from the Cross (1547) and the Group of Donors (1555), which were typical of his many religious works in a broadly mannerist style (see mannerism). Having done much to popularize Italian ideals in Andalusia, Campana returned to Brussels where he ran a tapestry factory and was also active as a tapestry designer.
Campanella, Tommaso
(1568-1639) Italian philosopher Campanella was born at Silo, Calabria. Like bruno, he began his career by joining the Dominican Order (1582). After various quarrels with the authorities in Naples, Padua, and Rome, Campanella returned to his native Calabria to play a leading role in the revolt against Spanish rule. The revolt quickly collapsed and in 1599 Campanella found himself imprisoned in Naples. After undergoing repeated torture he was finally released in 1626. He spent the rest of his life based in Rome and, from 1634, Paris. During his prolonged imprisonment Campanella produced many books and poems. Best known is his utopian fantasy, La cittd del sole (The City of the Sun), written about 1602 but first published at Frankfurt in a Latin version, Civitas solis, in 1623. In the City of the Sun the "So-larians" regulate their lives by astrological principles; hermetic influences are also identifiable among them, and they admire copernicus and consider Aristotle to be a pedant. Campanella also wrote an Apologia pro Galileo (1622) and De sensu rerum et magia (1620), both of which had also to be published by his disciple Tobias Adami at Frankfurt.
Campanilismo
The sense of civic pride and identity felt by the citizens of the Italian city-states. The term derives from campanile (bell tower), a prominent feature of every town, however small, the bell of which would mark ordinary daily events or summon or warn the citizens in times of crisis.
Campi family
Italian painters from Cremona Galeazzo Campi (c. 1477-1536) was strongly influenced by boccaccino, and examples of his work survive in the Cremonese churches of San Sigismondo and Sant’ Agostino. Galeazzo’s son Giulio (c. 1500-72) was influenced by giulio romano and by pordenone and worked with his brother Antonio (c. 1535-c. 1591) on the frescoes in San Sigismondo, in which is preserved the most important of his works, The Madonna appearing to Francesco and Bianca Sforza (1540); it was in honor of their marriage (1441) that the present church of San Sigis-mondo was begun in 1463. Giulio also painted frescoes of the life of St. Agatha for the church of Sant’ Agata, Cremona. A Pietd with Saints (1566) by Antonio is in the cathedral at Cremona and both Giulio and Antonio are represented by works in San Paolo Converso, Milan. Antonio also wrote a history of Cremona (1585), which he illustrated with his own engravings. The third of Galeazzo’s sons, Vincenzo (1536-91), specialized in portraits with still lifes; typical of his output is the realistic Woman with Fruit (Brera, Milan). A cousin, Bernardino (c. 1522-c. 1592), also worked on San Sigismondo (1570); his works hint at the elegant manneristic style of correggio. A Pietd by Bernardino is in the Louvre, Paris.
Campin, Robert
(1379-1444) Netherlands painter Campin is now generally thought to be identical with the socalled Master of Flemalle, the painter of panels depicting St. Veronica and the Virgin (1430-35; Stadelesches Kunstinstitut, Frankfurt) that were thought to come from Flemalle, near Liege. He was born at Valenciennes and is recorded as a master at Tournai (now in Belgium) in 1406, becoming a citizen of the town in 1410. There his most famous pupil was Rogier van der weyden in the late 1420s.
Campin is considered one of the great innovators of the early Netherlandish school as he moved from the decorative but flat stylization of International Gothic to a mode in which realism and perspective played a more significant role. The triptych known as the Merode altarpiece (c. 1428; Metropolitan Museum, New York) shows the Annunciation taking place in a pleasantly furnished bourgeois room; the townscape visible through the window behind St. Joseph on the right wing has a faltering approach to perspective, which is more deftly handled in the Nativity (c. 1430; Dijon). A Virgin in Glory with Saints (1430-35; Musee Granet, Aix-en-Provence), the Werl al-tarpiece wings (1438; Prado, Madrid), and portraits of a man and a woman (1430-35; National Gallery, London) are among his later works. He is often compared with his greater contemporary, Jan van eyck.
Campion, Edmund
(1540-1581) English Jesuit Born in London, the son of a bookseller, Campion went to Oxford where he enjoyed a distinguished career. He was ordained a deacon in the Church of England (1569) but his sympathies already lay with Roman Catholicism and he left Oxford for Dublin. In 1571 he went to douai where he was received into the Catholic Church, before moving on to Rome, where he joined the jesuits (1573). After his ordination (1578) he spent time in Bohemia before joining forces with Robert parsons to undertake the mission to reconvert England. His preaching in London and the recusant stronghold of Lancashire (see recusancy) was enthusiastically received, and in 1581 he wrote Decem ra-tiones (1581) challenging a Protestant-Catholic debate. The same year he was arrested, charged with conspiracy, tortured, and executed at Tyburn. He was canonized in 1970.
cancionero (Portuguese cancioneiro)
In Iberian poetry, a verse anthology of songs and lyrics, usually of a particular era or school of poets, but also of individuals (those of Jorge manrique and Juan del encina, for example). The earliest anthologies are 13th century, the oldest being El cancioneiro de Ajuda of King Dinis of Portugal (12591325), a collection of Portuguese verse in the troubadour tradition of Provence. Other Gallego-Portuguese anthologies contain written versions of Galician folksongs. Major cancioneros are those of Juan Alfonso de baena (1445) and the Cancionero de Stuniga (named after the first poet to appear in it, Lope de Stuniga (c. 1407-c. 1477)), which contains works chiefly from the court of Alfonso I of Naples (1443-58). The largest, the Cancionero general (1511), compiled by Hernando del Castillo, contains about 1000 poems by over 100 poets living from the reign of John II (1406-54) onwards. A similar Portuguese anthology is the Cancioneiro geral de Resende (1516), containing verses by 286 courtly poets of the late 15th and early 16th centuries writing in Spanish as well as Portuguese.
Candia The Venetian name for the largest city on the island of Crete, and, by extension, the name by which the whole island was commonly known in the Middle Ages. The word is a corruption of the Arabic name "Khandak," which refers to the great ditch that encompasses the ancient town. The Venetians took control of Crete in 1210 and subsequently made the town of Candia their capital and one of the major seaports in the eastern Mediterranean, fortifying it with walls, bastions, and gates. The military architect sanmicheli was put in charge of the work there in 1538. After a great siege (1648-69) the town fell to the Turks. It was renamed Herakleion in 1898.
Candida, Giovanni
(active c. 1475-c. 1504) Italian medalist, diplomat, and author
Candida was possibly born at Naples, but by 1475 was a secretary at the Burgundian court. In 1477 he was resident at Bruges, and between 1482 and 1483 he entered the service of Louis XI of France. He wrote a short Latin history of France for Louis’ successor, Charles VIII, and by 1491 was a royal counselor on the first of several diplomatic missions to Italy. Candida’s style is Italianate and was probably learned in his youth from Mantuan and Florentine medalists. His portrait medals include likenesses of Maximilian of Austria and Mary of Burgundy, the young Francis I of France, and numerous French and Italian statesmen. A fine medalist, Candida had a delicate style and considerable powers of characterization, but his primary art-historical significance is as a forerunner of the Italian artists who worked in France during the early 16th century (see fontainebleau).
Cane, Facino
(c. 1350-1412) Italian mercenary soldier A Piedmontese by birth, Cane led mercenary forces there and in Savoy from his youth up and established a reputation as a ruthless and efficient condottiere. The Genoese gave him a major command in 1394, and in 1397 he entered the employ of the visconti family of Milan. By the death of Giangaleazzo (1402) he had become such a powerful figure in Milanese affairs that the new duke, the incompetent Giovanni Maria, relied for his position upon Cane’s continuing support. Had it not been for his death, it is probable that Cane would have ousted the Visconti line from Milan. One of Duke Filippo Maria’s first acts on succeeding his brother in 1412 was to establish his position by marrying Cane’s widow, Beatrice, whom he later had put to death on a trumped-up charge of adultery (1418).
Cannon
A large gun fired from a carriage or fixed platform. The first undisputed references to cannon date from the early 14th century. Using skills gained in the manufacture of bells, the earliest cannon were cast from bronze and muzzle-loaded. Such weapons, however, proved to be too expensive, too difficult to make, and too easily worn away, to be completely successful. Consequently, they were soon superseded by larger, more durable, wrought-iron models, forged from strips of iron and secured with hooped rings. These were replaced by cast-iron cannon which began to appear in the early 16th century. Although normally quite small, weighing no more than a few hundred pounds, giants like the 15th-century 12-ton Mons Meg (Edinburgh Castle) were occasionally constructed. Technology imported from the West was used to devastating effect by the Ottoman Turks in the final assault on the land walls of Constantinople in 1453 and later deployed by the Turks against the cities and castles of southeastern Europe, as in the 1529 siege of Vienna. Light artillery mounted on wagons became a feature of warfare all over Europe.from the mid-15th century, used both to batter enemy fortifications and against enemy troops in the field.
Cano, Juan Sebastian del
(died 1526) Spanish navigator Born at Guetaria, on the Bay of Biscay, Cano commanded the Vittoria, one of the five ships that participated in Magellan’s celebrated voyage. The expedition set sail in 1519, and when Magellan was killed (1521), Cano became commander of the fleet. After visiting the Moluccas, Cano returned to Spain, landing at Seville on September 8, 1522. He was accordingly heralded as the first circumnavigator of the world, and was rewarded by the king with an engraved globe and a pension. In 1526 Cano left on another expedition to the Moluccas, but died at sea on August 4.
Cano, Melchior
(1509-1560) Spanish theologian In 1523 he became a Dominican friar at Salamanca. He taught at Valladolid from 1533, and in 1543 became the first professor of theology at Alcala. He defended Philip II in his political conflict with the papacy, and when in 1557 he was chosen as provincial of his order papal conformation of his appointment was long delayed. His doctrine of marriage, that the priestly blessing was the essential form of the sacrament, was controversial. His De locis theologi-cis, his principal work, was published in 1563.
Capponi family
A wealthy and influential Florentine family, established in the city from 1210. Although Gino (1350-1421) supported the albizzi, Neri (1388-1475) was a prominent supporter of the medici. Piero (1447-96) was employed as an ambassador by Lorenzo the Magnificent, but after the latter’s death (1492) joined the anti-Medicean party, becoming head of the republic set up in Florence on the expulsion of Piero de’ Medici in 1494. His defiance of charles viii of France in 1494 is famous; the French king, backed by 12,000 troops, issued an ultimatum which Capponi tore up in his face, and when Charles said menacingly, "Then we shall sound our trumpets," Capponi retorted, "And we shall ring our bells" (i.e. summon the citizens to fight in the streets). The king backed off. Unluckily for the Florentine republic, Capponi was soon afterwards killed fighting in the ill-starred war against the Pisans.
During the second Medicean expulsion, Niccolo di Piero (died 1529) was twice elected gonfaloniere (1527, 1528) but he was forced to resign when his attempts to make peace with the Medicean pope Clement VII were construed as high treason. After the restoration of the Medici (1530) many of the family were forced into exile.
