Central Coast Salish, a group of Indians that shared a common language family and a related culture. Central Coast Salish tribes and villages included Squamish (at least 16 villages), Nooksack (at least 20 villages), Klallam (about a dozen villages), Halkomelem, and Northern Straits. Halkomelem had three divisions: Island (Nanoose, Nanaimo, Chemainus, Cowichan, and Malahat), Downriver (Musqueam, Tsawwessen, Saleelwat, Kwantlen, Coquitlam, Nicomekl, and Katzie), and Upriver (Matsqui, Sumas, Nicomen, Scowlitz, Chehalis, Chilliwak, Pilalt, and Tait). Northern Straits had six divisions: Sooke, Songhees, Saanich, Semiahmoo, Lummi, Samish. The discussions that follow do not apply to every group or tribe.
Location Traditionally, the lands inhabited by the Central Coast Salish in Canada and the United States included both sides of the southern Strait of Georgia, the San Juan Islands, extreme northwest Washington east of the strait, and parts of the northern Olympic Peninsula. The region is generally wet and moderate, although it includes some drier and cooler regions.
Most contemporary Central Coast Salish Indians live on reserves or reservations in or around their aboriginal lands or in cities of the Northwest.
Population The Central Coast Salish population stood at roughly 20,000 in the mid-eighteenth century. In the 1990s it was around 16,000.
Language Central Coast Salish, which includes the Squamish, Nooksack, Klallam, Halkomelem, and Northern Straits (Lkungen) languages, is a member of the Central division of the Salishan language family.
Historical Information
History Some Central Coast Salish may have had contact with the Spanish explorer Juan de Fuca in 1592, or in 1787 an Anglo fur trader may have been the first non-Indian inside the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Regular Spanish explorations of Coast Salish territory began in the early 1790s. Smallpox epidemics also began about that time, if not earlier.
Land-based Anglo fur traders established themselves at the mouth of the Columbia River in 1811. The Hudson’s Bay Company built a fort on the Fraser River in 1827. That post, Fort Langley, became the local center of interracial contact and trade. Indians supplied materials, labor, and goods, and Indian women married or otherwise became involved with Anglo traders. Fort Victoria, built in 1843, drew Indian trade from Puget Sound to as far north as Alaska.
The Treaty of Washington (1846) split Central Coast Salish country between the United States and Canada. The British subsequently created small reserves for every village (which they called bands). On the U.S. side, the Point Elliot and Point No Point Treaties in 1855 ceded Indian land and created a few regional reservations. However, most Indians remained in their own territories rather than remove to the designated reservations. Some groups were left landless by this process. Anglo settlers began trickling in during the 1850s. The trickle turned into a flood in 1858 when gold was discovered in the Fraser River.
Christian missionaries, present since 1841, became more active after 1858. During the following decades a number of bands became thoroughly Christianized. By the 1860s, many Central Coast Salish Indians were working in the new industries: logging, farming, shipping, and commercial fishing. They also found seasonal work picking berries and hops. Nooksacks were expected under the terms of the Point Elliot Treaty to move to the Lummi Reservation, but few did. They continued to function as a tribe, although the government no longer considered them one, and finally received federal recognition in 1973.
The Lummi Reservation was established in 1855. Gold seekers around this time inflicted great personal harm on the Lummi and other tribes. Still, despite pressure to adopt agriculture, many Lummis continued to practice a semitraditional lifestyle based on reef-netting. They lost key lands as a result of white encroachment in 1890s, although by the 1930s they had acquired and cultivated new land. They lost over one-third of their population during the 1950s as a result of the official government policy of relocating reservation Indians to urban areas. In the 1970s they received a land claims settlement for the loss of their reef netting locations, which they have refused to accept because they consider it far too low.
According to the terms of the Point No Point Treaty (1855), Klallams were to remove to the Skokomish Reservation. However, most remained in their traditional villages. In 1874, some Klallam Indians purchased land and called their settlement Jamestown. When the United States purchased about 1,600 acres for the Klallam in 1936, they were separated into the Lower Elwha Tribal Community and the Port Gamble Indian Community (the former sawmill settlement of Little Boston). Some Klallams also went to the Puyallup Reservation.
According to the Point Elliot Treaty (1855), the Samishes were supposed to move onto various local reservations, but few did. Many moved in the 1870s to Guemes Island, built a longhouse (almost 500 feet long) and continued their traditional customs as best they could. By 1912, however, whites had forced them off this land. Some people occupied traditional villages while other simply scattered. Many received allotments on the Swinomish Reservation. They adopted a constitution and by-laws (subsequently revised) in 1926 and were awarded a land claims settlement in 1971, which they refused.
By the turn of the century, Indian material culture had been significantly changed, but some groups retained traditional activities, such as the potlatch. For these Indians, the early twentieth century was marked by economic decline, increased cultural suppression in boarding schools, the spread of the Shaker religion, and the revival of spirit dancing. Meanwhile, the Northwestern Federation of American Indians (formed in Tacoma in 1914) pushed for fulfillment of treaty rights. In U.S. v. Washington (1974), the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that half of the harvestable salmon and steelhead in Washington waters were reserved for federally recognized, land-based treaty tribes.
Religion Central Coast Salish recognized a mythological time when their legendary ancestors lived. They believed that people are composed of several components, one or more of which might occasionally get lost or lured away and would have to be restored by shamans. In their everyday lives, they made a distinction between what was considered normal and anything that might connote danger or power (such as a deformed person, a menstruating woman, or a corpse). People sought luck or skills from an encounter with a spirit. An accompanying song provided direct access to the spirit’s power.
Shamans’ spirit helpers gave special powers. Men and women could be shamans. Curing, the province of shamans, entailed singing, drama, and extracting a harmful entity with the hands and mouth. Some shamans could also foretell the future. Spells or incantations were also believed to carry power. Most people used them to help perform a task, but people highly skilled in such matters could be hired for special occasions.
Intra- and intervillage spirit dances took place in winter. The host provided food, and dancers danced their spirit songs, of which there were several categories. Dances and songs were accompanied by much ritual paraphernalia. Secret societies also held their dances in winter. Their main ceremony was initiating new members; the right to membership was hereditary. Central Coast Salish people also observed first salmon ceremonies (the ritual preparation and consumption of the season’s first catch). Cleansing rituals were made both to erase a disgrace and to enhance a festive occasion.
Government Each group lived in a number of villages. Heads of the leading or established household served as local group chiefs. As such, they had little or no power to govern; they were wealthy and influential men who entertained guests, made decisions about subsistence activity, and arbitrated disputes.
Customs Several extended families made up a household, which owned particular subsistence areas and tools, such as clam beds and fowl nets. Some particularly prestigious households, or "houses" (in the European sense), descended from a notable ancestor and shared resources, names, ceremonies, and other valuables. Some local groups may have had their own winter villages, although larger villages included several local groups. Members of different households cooperated in some activities such as deer drives, building a salmon weir, ceremonies, and defense, but they were not necessarily culturally homogeneous. There was little intervillage cooperation. Social groups included worthy people (those with wealth, ancestry,manners, and guardian spirits), worthless people, and slaves.
Children at Port Gamble Indian School, a missionary school, in 1910.
The Central Coast Salish intermarried from within and without. Marriages involved ritual exchanges and promoted trade. They were initiated by men; women could refuse, but they felt pressure to marry "well." A wedding usually entailed the exchange of gifts (material and/or hereditary privileges) and a cleansing ceremony. Exchanges of food and gifts between families-in-law continued throughout the marriage.
From an early age, children were "toughened" by swimming in icy water and running in storms. This process culminated in the adolescent spirit quest. Boys marked puberty by making their first kill. If possible, girls were feted with a feast and a display of hereditary privileges. They were secluded during their periods. Among the Cowichan, a girl undertook a solitary vigil; if she was joined by a boy, and their parents agreed, they could be married. Corpses were wrapped in blankets and placed in canoes or grave boxes. Among the worthy, bones were rewrapped several years later with an accompanying display of privileges.
Potlatches, as opposed to feasts, were usually held outdoors in good weather. Occasions included life crises and important life-cycle or ceremonial events. Usually all or part of a village held the potlatch, with each house marking its own occasions. Goods were not expected to be returned: The point was status—that is, good relations with neighbors and good marriages for children.
Some hunters, both land and sea, achieved a professional status and spent whole summers hunting. People generally spent the summers traveling in small groups, following seasonal food cycles and living in temporary dwellings. They enjoyed several gambling games, including the hand and disk games. Sports included shinny, races, athletic competitions, and games of skill. Singing for pleasure was common.
Dwellings Winter villages consisted of from one house to several rows of houses built on the beach. Houses were up to several hundred feet long. They had a permanent wooden framework with a shed roof and removable roof and wall planks. Each family had a separate fire. House posts were decorated with painted and carved images of ancestors and spirit powers. These people also built some fortified war refuges (stockades). Other structures included summer mat houses, wooden grave houses, and pole and mat sweat lodges.
Diet Fish, especially salmon (all five species), were the staple food, although they were available to different people in different places at different times of the year. The leaner, fall runs were dried for storage; otherwise they were eaten fresh. Other important foods included sea mammals (seal and porpoise, used mostly for oil; sea lions; whales [Klallam]); shellfish; land mammals such as deer, elk, black bear, mountain goats, and beaver (smaller game as well as grizzlies, cougars, and wolves were generally avoided); waterfowl; and a large variety of plants. Camus, brake fern, wapato, and wild carrots were especially important, but other bulbs, roots, berries, sprouts, and stems were also used. Camus fields were burned and reseeded. Potato husbandry became important after 1800.
Key Technology Fish were taken with reef nets, dip nets, trawl nets, harpoons, gaff hooks, spears, basket traps, weirs, tidal pounds (rows of underwater stakes), hooks, and herring rakes and in rectangular nets suspended between two canoes, a method by which several thousand fish a day might be captured. Harpoons, seal nets, and clubs served as marine mammal hunting equipment; land mammals were taken with pitfalls, snares, bow (2.5 to 3 feet, made of yew) and arrow, and spears. Waterfowl were snagged in permanent nets stretched across flyways. They were also hunted with bow and arrow, flares and nets at night, and snares.
Important raw materials included wood, hides, antler, horn, mountain goat wool, beaver teeth, wood stone, and shell. Wooden items included house materials, canoes, bent-corner boxes, dishes, tools, weapons, and ceremonial items. Shredded bark was used for towels, mattresses, and similar items. Sewn mats of cattail leaves and tule lined interior house walls, covered frames of summer shelters, and were made into mattresses, rain covers, and sitting or kneeling pads. Women made several types of baskets, including wrapped lattice, coiled, twined, and woven. They practiced a distinctive form of weaving, spinning wool from a special breed of dog (now extinct) plus mountain goat wool, waterfowl down, and fireweed cotton on a large spindle and weaving it on a two-bar loom.
Trade All groups engaged in local and regional trade and intermarriage. The Klallam, in particular, were great traders as well as warriors. Salish people imported Chilkat blankets, among other items.
Notable Arts Wooden items such as house posts, canoes, grave monuments, and household and ritual items were artistically carved and/or painted. Designs featured humans, animals, and/or vision powers. Lummi and other women wove cedar-bark baskets and mountain goat and dog wool blankets.
Transportation Most travel was by canoe. There were five distinct types, depending on the activity, not including those obtained in trade.
Dress Men often went naked or wore buckskin shorts or robes (skin or shredded bark). Women wore short aprons or skirts and robes. Some men and women wore conical basketry hats, and some men wore fur caps. In cold weather, both sexes wore down-and-nettle shirts, robes, and perhaps ponchos. There were also fine blankets made of mountain goat and coyote wool as well as plant fibers. Hunters wore hide outfits and moccasins or snowshoes. Ponchos of woven cedar bark or cattail leaves served as rain gear.
Free people had flattened heads. Personal adornments included pierced ears and often pierced noses, tattoos, and body paint (which was also applied against insects). Headgear included women’s Plateau-style basketry hats and mushroom-shaped, brimmed spruce-root hats worn by both sexes. Both men and women wore their hair long.
War and Weapons The Central Coast Salish fought wars among themselves, with their neighbors, and with more distant neighbors. Injury and death, intentional or not, demanded compensation. Refusal to pay might lead to fighting, and some groups, such as the Klallam, saw compensation as dishonorable. The Klallam were particularly aggressive; the impaled heads of their foes, often Snohomish, Cowichan, or Duwamish, often decorated their beaches. There was some naval warfare, in which canoes rammed and sank other canoes. At least in the early nineteenth century, the Lekwiltok (Kwakiutl) were a common enemy.
Raids, for loot, territory, vengeance, or a show of power, were led by professional warriors with special powers. Raids featured surprise attacks. Men were killed, and women and children were captured, later to be ransomed or sold as slaves. Warriors wore elk hide armor.
Contemporary Information
Government/Reservations In 1984, 235 reserves (approximately 62,000 acres) were connected with 52 Central Coast Salish bands (approximately 13,000 people) in British Columbia. See "Daily Life" for summary descriptions of selected bands in Canada.
The Nooksack Reservation (12 acres) was created in 1973. Most Nooksacks live in and near Deming, Nooksack, and Everson, Washington. They are governed by a tribal council. A further 60 acres of reservation land is expected. The 1991 tribal population was 1,168.
The Jamestown S’klallam Reservation (1980; 12 acres; population 240) is located at the upper Strait of Juan de Fuca. The Klallam are governed by an elected tribal council. Also, with the Port Gamble, the Lower Elwha Klallams, and the Skokomishes (Twana), the Jamestown S’klallam make up the Point No Point Treaty Council, an administrative body.
The Elwha S’klallam Reservation (1968; 427 acres; 530 population) is located in Clallam County, Washington. The Lower Elwha Tribal Community began in 1936. They adopted a constitution and bylaws in 1968. The Lower Elwha Community Tribal Council is composed of all qualified voters. Members of a business committee are elected to two-year terms.
The Port Gamble Reservation (1936; 1,303 acres; 860 population) is located on the Kitsap Peninsula in Washington. The Port Gamble Indian Community adopted a constitution in 1939. A business committee appoints various standing committees. Many Klallams also live on the Skokomish Reservation.
The Lummi Reservation (1849; 7,073 acres allotted, 12 acres tribally owned) is west of Bellingham, Washington. The Lummi adopted a new constitution in 1970. The 11 members of an elected business council serve three-year terms. The tribal council elects officers and establishes committees. The Lummi are the dominant group on this mixed-group reservation. The enrolled membership in 1992 was 3,200, about half of whom lived on the reservation.
Economy The Lummi run fish hatcheries and an aquaculture program. They also have a salmon-rearing facility, a huge fishing fleet, a restaurant-boating complex, and a fish-processing plant. Nevertheless, the unemployment rate there in the early 1990s approached 70 percent. There are several community-owned businesses, including a gas station, store, and mobile home park, and crafts enterprises on the Port Gamble Reservation. Klallams and Nooksacks are also active in the commercial fishing industry. Other important economic activity includes subsistence gardening, fishing, logging, and seasonal farm work.
Legal Status The Nooksack Indian Tribe has been federally recognized since 1973. The Jamestown Klallam Tribe is a federally recognized tribal entity. The Lower Elwha Tribal Community of the Lower Elwha Reservation (Klallam) is a federally recognized tribal entity. The Port Gamble Indian Community of the Port Gamble Reservation (Klallam) is a federally recognized tribal entity. The Lummi Tribe is a federally recognized tribal entity. The Samish Indian Tribe is seeking federal recognition.
Daily Life Central Coast Salish Indians in both the United States and Canada are still linked socially through festivals, canoe racing, games, winter dancing, and the Indian Shaker Church. The Nooksack have a tribal center complex at Deming. They work closely with federal and state entities to manage local natural resource areas and are engaged in redressing housing and health care shortages. Cultural preservation is carried out mainly by means of identifying and preserving cultural sites. Although these people are largely assimilated, they maintain strong family connections to a greater Indian identity. Funerals, in particular, are important occasions on which to express that identity, as are longhouse ceremonials and local pantribal celebrations.
Most Klallams are Protestant. Their children attend public schools. There are several tribal community programs at Lower Elwha and Port Gamble, including a substance abuse program, health clinic, housing department, hatchery-fisheries department, and a higher adult-vocational education department. The Port Gamble Reservation enforces most of its own laws. The Jamestown Klallam have an annual gathering, "S’klallam Qwen Seyu."
Many of the roughly 600 Samish live on the Tulalip, Lummi, or Swinomish Reservations as well as near the tribal headquarters in Anacortes, Washington. They operate a gift shop as well as an archaeological consulting service and participate in spirit dancing and other local Indian activities.
The Lummi Reservation features childrens’ programs as well as a K-8 school and Northwest Indian College. Some Lummi children attend Catholic school. The local Indian Health Service provides medical and dental care. The annual Lummi Stommish water carnival in June features canoe racing. Few speak the tribal language, but some traditional ceremonies and festivals are still held. Some tribes began a revival of blanket weaving in the 1980s. Many Lummis are Christian, although traditional spirit dancing and the Indian Shaker Church are also important.
Selected Central Coast Salish bands in British Columbia (statistics as of 1995):
Chehalis Band controls two reserves on 907 hectares of land 10 miles west of Agassiz. The population is 775, of whom 400 people live on the reserves. The band is governed under the provisions of the Indian Act and is currently unaffiliated. Children attend band and provincial schools. Important economic resources and activities include small businesses, forestry, and fishing. Facilities include two recreation buildings, a cultural center, a longhouse, and offices.
Chemainus Band controls four reserves on 1,225 hectares of land about 30 kilometers south of Nanaimo. The reserves were allotted in 1877. The population is 882, of whom 690 people live on the reserves. The band is governed under the provisions of the Indian Act and is affiliated with the Mid-Island Tribal Council. Children attend band and provincial schools. Important economic resources and activities include a construction company, a campsite, and a general store. Facilities include an administration building and a clinic.
Coquitlam (Kwayhquitlim) Band, formerly part of the Chilliwack Tribe, controls two reserves on 89 hectares of land. The population is 81, of whom seven people live in five houses on the reserves. The band is governed by custom and is currently unaffiliated. Important economic resources and activities include a proposed residential and golf course development.
Cowichan Band controls nine reserves on 2,493 hectares of land near the city of Duncan. The population is 2,972, of whom 1,922 people live on the reserves. The band is governed under the provisions of the Indian Act and is currently unaffiliated. Children attend band and provincial schools. Important economic resources and activities include a construction company, a fish hatchery, land leasing, wood carving, and several small businesses. Facilities include nine recreation buildings, two cultural centers, a community hall, and offices.
Cowichan Lake Band controls one reserve on 39 hectares of land on the north shore of Cowichan Lake. The population is 12, of whom 10 live on the reserve. Elections are by custom. The band is affiliated with the First Nations South Island Tribal Council (FNSITC).
Malahat Band, formerly part of the Saanich Tribe, controls one reserve on 237 hectares of land 40 kilometers north of Victoria. The reserve was allotted in 1877. The population is 220, of whom 81 live in 13 houses on the reserve. Elections are held under the provisions of the Indian Act. The band is affiliated with the FNSITC. Children attend provincial schools. Facilities include a longhouse and a recreation building.
Musqueam Band controls three reserves on 254 hectares of land near the Point Grey area of Vancouver. The population is 925, of whom 454 live in 110 houses on the reserves. Elections are held under the provisions of the Indian Act. Children attend band and provincial schools. Important economic resources include a shipyard and a hotel. Facilities include a community and recreation hall, offices, a longhouse, and a church.
Nanaimo Band controls six reserves on 26 hectares of land near the city of Nanaimo. The reserves were allotted in 1876. The population is 1,089, of whom 409 live in 122 houses on the reserves. Elections are held under the provisions of the Indian Act. The band is affiliated with the Alliance Tribal Council. Children attend band and provincial schools. Important economic activities include forest industries. Facilities include a recreation center, a cultural center, a store, and offices.
Katzie Band controls five reserves on 340 hectares of land west of Port Hammond. The population is 396, of whom 201 people live in 75 houses on the reserves. Elections are held according to custom. The band is affiliated with the Alliance Tribal Council. The economy is based on commercial fishing and land leases. Facilities include offices.
Pauquachin Band, formerly part of the Saanich Tribe, controls two reserves on 319 hectares of land in the southwest part of Vancouver Island. The reserves were allotted in 1877. The population is 265, of whom 177 live in 56 houses on the reserves. Elections are held under the provisions of the Indian Act. The band is affiliated with the FNSITC. Schools are administered by the Saanich Indian School Board. Important economic activities include a recreational vehicle park. Facilities include a recreation center, offices, and a longhouse.
Pehelakut Band controls four reserves on 635 hectares of land near Chemainus, British Columbia. The reserves were allotted in 1877. The population is 657, of whom 421 live in 101 houses on the reserves. Elections are held under the provisions of the Indian Act. The band is affiliated with the Mid-Island Tribal Council. Children attend band and provincial schools. Important economic activities include a general store. Facilities include a community hall, offices, and a longhouse.
Semiahmoo Band controls one reserve on 129 hectares of land southeast of White Rock. The population is 60, of whom 26 live in seven houses on the reserve. Elections are held under the provisions of the Indian Act. The band is unaffiliated. Children attend provincial schools. Economic activities include a campsite. Facilities include a church.
Skwah Band controls four reserves on 342 hectares of land near Chilliwack, British Columbia. The reserves were established in 1879. The population is 354, of whom 171 live in 58 houses on the reserves. Elections are held under the provisions of the Indian Act. The band is unaffiliated. Children attend band and provincial schools. Important economic activities include local agriculture and businesses in Chilliwack. Facilities include a community hall, offices, and a recreation room.
Songhees Band controls three reserves on 126 hectares of land near Esquimault Harbor. The reserves were allotted in 1878. The population is 330, of whom 206 live in 60 houses on the reserves. Elections are held under the provisions of the Indian Act. The band is unaffiliated. Children attend band and provincial schools. Important economic activities include a boat ramp, a mobile home park, and a store. Facilities include a community hall, offices, and a sports field.
Sooke Band controls two reserves on 67 hectares of land on the south end of Vancouver Island. The reserves were allotted in 1877. The population is 160, of whom 78 live on the reserves. Elections are held under the provisions of the Indian Act. The band is affiliated with the FNSITC. Children attend provincial schools. Important economic activities include forestry and off-reservation businesses. Facilities include a community hall, offices, a cultural center, and a park.
Squamish Band controls eight villages from the north shore of Burrand Inlet to the head of Howe Sound. The population is 2,554, of whom 1,627 live in 350 houses. Elections are held by custom. The band is affiliated with the Alliance Tribal Council. Children attend band and provincial schools. Important economic activities include land developed and leased by the band and several small businesses. Facilities include a community hall, a cultural center, a library, an arts and crafts building, a group home, a seniors’ home, a longhouse, and offices.
Tsartlip Band, formerly part of the Saanich Tribe, controls three reserves on 324 hectares of land 25 kilometers north of Victoria. The reserves were allotted in 1877. The population is 695, of whom 419 live in 98 houses on the reserves. Elections are held under the provisions of the Indian Act. The band is affiliated with the FNSITC. Schools are administered by the Saanish Indian School Board. Important economic activities include a boat ramp, a campsite, and a store. Facilities include a cultural center and offices.
Tsawout Band, formerly part of the Saanich Tribe, controls two reserves on 258 hectares of land about 30 kilometers north of Victoria. The reserves were allotted in 1877. The population is 567, of whom 402 live in 80 houses on the reserves. Elections are held under the provisions of the Indian Act. The band is affiliated with the FNSITC. Important economic activities include small businesses, hotels, and trailer parks. Facilities include a cultural center, longhouse, community hall, and offices.
Tsawwassen Band controls one reserve on 750 acres of land. The population is 173, of whom 109 live in 55 houses on the reserve. Elections are held under the provisions of the Indian Act. The band is affiliated with the Alliance Tribal Council. Children attend band and provincial schools. Important economic activities include a recreational park and a proposed hotel/marina complex. Facilities include a recreation center, a church, and offices.
Tseycum Band, formerly part of the Saanich Tribe, controls one reserve on 28 hectares of land on Saanich Inlet. The reserves were allotted in 1877. The population is 124, of whom 75 live in 22 houses on the reserves. Elections are held under the provisions of the Indian Act. The band is affiliated with the FNSITC. Important economic activities are mostly off-reserve. Facilities include a cemetery, a sports field, and offices.
