INTRODUCTION
The adoption of interactive digital television (IDTV) and related technologies such as the personal video recorder (PVR) make IDTV attractive for advertisers in terms of reach. Although IDTV leads to an increase in advertising avoidance behaviour, it also offers new advertising opportunities (Cau-berghe & De Pelsmacker, 2006). One of them is the telescopic advertisement. This format consists of a “30-second TV ad with a call-to-action button with clickable content or micro sites featuring individual still screens providing additional product information” (Bellman & Varan, 2004, p. 2). When the viewer clicks on the call-to-action button, he or she leaves the linear broadcast stream to enter a dedicated advertising location (DAL). There, the viewer can navigate through the additional information, which can be structured in different layers. The purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of two aspects of the complexity of a telescopic ad by experimentally manipulating the amount of information and the level of interactivity in the DAL. Additionally, the role of time spent in the DAL is explored.
BACKGROUND
Advertising Complexity and Information Load
To keep the consumer’s interest focused on a persuasive message, an appropriate level of complexity is recommended (Putrevu, Tan, & Lord, 2004). Complexity has been identified as one of the major dimensions of information load. An increase in information load generates a positive effect on information processing until a certain threshold is reached, at which the consumer will be overloaded with information. At this point the consumer will no longer consider additional information and will become confused, and it is harder to recall previous information (Lang, 2000). The effects of complexity and information load follow an inverted U shape, by which a moderate level of complexity leads to the most optimal advertising results (e.g., Geissler, Zinkhan, & Watson, 2006; Martin, Sherrard, & Wentzel, 2005; Wang, Chou, Su, & Tsai, 2007).
Amount of Information
The effect of the amount of information follows an inverted U shape (e.g., Meyer, 1998), leading to negative effects in decision quality when too much information is provided. Although an increase in the quality of the additional information decreases message complexity, increases the credibility of product information, and leads to a positive effect on decision making (Keller & Staelin, 1987), increasing the quantity of information leads to an increase in complexity and can, due to limited cognitive capacity and information overload, lead to confusion and negative evaluative effects after a certain threshold is reached (Lang, 2000). In the present study, the quantity of information in the DAL is manipulated, keeping the quality constant. Therefore, the following can be expected.
H1: A high amount of information in the DAL leads to lower brand recall and a less positive brand attitude than a low amount of information.
Level of Interactivity
Interactivity has the capability to develop feelings of flow, “an intrinsically motivated optimal enjoyable mental state” (Csikszentmihalyi & Lefevre, 1989). This mental state increases the cognitive involvement with the interactive content due to focused attention and the possibility for consumers to take control over the time, structure, and order in which they want to be exposed to the information (Liu & Shrum, 2002); it also increases the processing of the information presented in the interactive context (e.g., Chung & Zhao, 2004; Macias, 2003; Sicilia, Ruiz, & Munera, 2005). The intrinsically motivatedjoy evoked by flow may be transferred to the persuasive message and brand, leading to a positive effect on the attitude toward the ad, brand attitude, and pur chase intention (Chung & Zhao; Ko, Cho, & Roberts, 2005; Macias, 2003). Therefore, we expect the following.
H2: A high level of interactivity in the DAL leads to higher brand recall and a more positive brand attitude than a low level of interactivity.
Mediating Role of Time Spent in the DAL
Longer ads have more opportunities to provide extra product arguments and to repeat key points of the message compared to their shorter equivalents. The longer a consumer is exposed to an advertisement, the more opportunity the consumer has to process it, and the more he or she will remember of it. Longer commercials lead to more positive brand attitudes (e.g., Danaher & Mullarkey, 2003). Since both the amount of information and interactivity increase the level of complexity, we can expect that more complexity will lead to more time spent in the DAL and that, next to a direct effect of the amount of information and the level of interactivity on brand responses, part of this effect is mediated by the time spent in the DAL.
H3: Time spent in the DAL mediates the effects of the amount of information and the level of interactivity on brand recall and brand attitude.
EMPIRICAL STUDY Research Method
The hypotheses were tested using a 2×2 (information x interactivity) between-participant factorial design. A telescopic ad was developed, consisting of a 30″ television ad, a call-to-action button (“click on the red button for more information”), and an interactive DAL. To avoid confounding effects, a traditional 30″ advertisement for a travel agency originating in The Netherlands was used, unknown to Dutch-speaking Belgians. The attitude toward the 30″ advertisement was controlled to be positive to avoid negative affective reactions. The ad contained a feel-good conversation between two men on an airplane.
In the DAL, the amount of information was manipulated at two levels. Information about different kinds of holiday formulas and hotels was provided for different countries. The information in the high-level condition was more of the same compared to the low information level (e.g., information about 29 hotels vs. 106 hotels). Interactivity was manipulated at two levels by means of the amount of links in the DAL (12 vs. 92), the availability of a navigation bar (yes or no), and the possibility of two-way communication (e.g., “search an address,” yes or no). The layout of the DAL was kept stable over conditions.
Out of a database of a Belgian market research agency, a gross sample of 521 individuals was randomly selected based on age, gender, and education quota. A net sample of 282 participants cooperated in the study. The average age of respondents in the sample was 38 (range 21-56); 61.8% were males, and 55.3% finished higher education. The respondents were randomly assigned to one of the four experimental conditions. The respondents were individually invited to an experimental living-room setting. After the briefing, they watched a 6-minute neutral-mood excerpt of a TV programme followed by the advertisement. At the end of the 30″ television ad, a call-to-action button appeared on the screen in combination with a voice-over that invited the respondent to press the button for more product information. After viewing the DAL, the respondents entered a computer-assisted questionnaire. The experiment lasted 40 minutes in total. Each respondent received €25.
The questionnaire contained a brand attitude (Ab) measurement (which did not contain the brand name; seven-point four-item scale, a =.87) and a measure of the attitude toward the 30″ ad (used as a covariate in the analysis; seven-point four-item scale, a =.95). After questions about the age, gender, and education level of the participants, unaided brand recall was measured using an open-ended question.
Results
Manipulation Check
The perceived amount of information (two-item five-point semantic differential scale, a =.93) and the perceived level of interactivity were measured by three-item five-point Likert scales (a =.93 and .74). The t-tests indicate that both manipulations were successful (M low information=3.281 vs. Mhighinformation=4.022, t=5.885, p<.001; M low interactivity= 3.286 vs. M high interactivity=3.644, t=6.024, p<.001).
Main Effect of Amount of Information
The amount of information in the DAL had no effect on brand recall (low amount of information=52.1% vs. high amount of information=47.9%, chi2=.845, p=.358). To measure the effect of the amount of information on brand attitude, anANCOVA (analysis of covariance) was conducted in which the attitude toward the 30″ television ad was used as a covariate. The attitude toward the 30″ television ad had a significant positive effect on Ab (F(1, 240)=65.128, p<.001). However, there was no significant main effect of the amount of information on Ab (F (1, 240)=.039, p=.843; M low information =4.28 vs. M high information=4.37). H1 is not supported.
Main Effect of Level of Interactivity
The level of interactivity had a positive effect on brand recall and attitude. As compared to a low level of interactivity, a high level of interactivity increased brand recall from 43.6% to 56.4% (chi2=5.371, p=.020). This positive effect of interactivity was also found for Ab (F (1, 240)=9.502, p=.002; M low interactivity=4.19 vs. M high interactivity 4.46). H2 is supported.
Mediating Role of Time Spent in the DAL
We chose not to constrain the time in our study to keep the external validity high. In real life, the viewer also has the freedom to choose how much time he or she spends to process the additional information. To investigate the mediating effect of time spent in the DAL on the relation between the amount of information, the level of interactivity, and the attitude toward the brand, we used the three-step procedure of Baron and Kenny (1986).
Brand Recall
The amount of information has no significant direct effect on brand recall (see above main effect of the amount of information; chi2=.845, p=.358). However, to detect a mediation effect, significance in this first step is not required. The effect of the amount of information on the time spent in the DAL is positive and significant (Step 2; low amount of information: M time=4.768; high amount of information: M time=5.745, t=2.514, p=.013). In Step 3, both the amount of information (dichotomous variable) and the time spent in the DAL were inserted as independent variables in a logistic regression with brand recall as a dichotomous dependent variable. The results show that the time spent (p=.007) fully mediates the effect of the amount of information (p=.224) on brand recall. The main effect of the level of interactivity on brand recall is positively significant (Step 1; see above main effect of the level of interactivity; chi2=5.371, p=.020). The level of interactivity also significantly increases the time spent in the DAL (M low interactivity=4.373 vs. M high interactivity=6.148, t=4.710, p<001). The logistic regression indicates that the effect of the level of interactivity on brand recall is only partially mediated by the time spent in the DAL (p=.047). Interactivity is still (marginally) significant (p=.08).
Brand Attitude
The amount of information has no significant effect on brand attitude (Step 1; see effect of the amount of information, Mlow information=4.279vs. Mhighinformation=4.366, t=.698,p=.486). The amount of information has a positively significant effect on time spent in the DAL (Step 2; M low information=4.767 vs. M high information=5.745, t=2.514, p=.013). ANCOVA was used to investigate the combined effect of the amount of information (dichotomous variable) and the time spent in the DAL (Step 3). The effect of the amount of information on brand attitude stays insignificant (F(1, 2.13), p=.645), and time spent had a positive, significant effect (F(1, 4.612), p=.033). These results indicate that the effect of the amount of information on brand attitude is fully mediated by the time spent in the DAL. The level of interactivity has a positive, significant effect on brand attitude (Step 1; see above main effect of the amount of information, Mlow interactivity= 4.187 vs. M high interactivity=4.457, t=2.188, p=.030). Next, the level of interactivity significantly increases the time spent in the DAL (M low information=4.373 vs. M high information= 6.148, t=4.710, p<001). The ANCOVA (Step 3) illustrates that the effect of interactivity on brand attitude is no longer significant (F(1, 2.093), p=.149) when integrating the time spent in the DAL (F(1, 2.769), p=.097) as a covariate. However, the significance levels of the effects of both variables (interactivity and time) on brand attitude are rather weak. This indicates that time spent in the DAL fully but weakly mediates the effect of interactivity on brand attitude.
H3 is supported. Both the effects of the level of interactivity and the amount of information on brand recall and brand attitude are at least partly mediated by the time spent in the DAL.
FUTURE TRENDS
The main conclusion of this study is that the positive effect of interactivity in the DAL is remarkably noticeable on both brand recall and attitude. Since the amount of information did not have a negative effect in any way, advertisers may be advised to provide their DAL with enough information. High amounts of information will increase the time spent in the DAL, and will therefore indirectly have a positive effect on brand attitude and recall.
A telescopic ad fits into a number of new advertising and marketing trends (see also Rappaport, 2007). A telescopic ad can be used on demand given the technical possibility to store the DAL on the television. This allows the viewer to ask for product information whenever convenient for him or her and fits into the trend of consumer-controlled two-way communication. A telescopic ad can also be the starting point to increase engagement with the brand. All consumer data (clicking behaviour, time spent, e-mail, etc.) can be stored and used to develop long-lasting relationships between the customer and the company. In this way, it fits into the trend of shifting the focus from transaction-oriented marketing (push) to relationship marketing. The telescopic ad can also be used as an extra service for the consumer. This is particularly relevant for product categories that are at least moderately involving, such as banking, insurances, and durables. In mature and saturated markets, brands will have to be full-scale solution providers rather than merely offering functional product benefits. Telescopic ads can also tap into the experiential marketing trend: Brands should be experienced, not merely communicated. Telescopic ads can offer the extra experiential context that a modern brand needs.
Our study provides some directions for research that would provide guidance with respect to what successful telescopic ads should look like in the future. First, our results are only pertinent when the respondent reacts to the call for action and uses the interactive possibilities. A real-life study is necessary to explore the actual click-through behaviour more validly. Further research could investigate under which circumstances a viewer will react to the call to action that appears in the 30″ ad. Further research could examine the role of the product message or offer in the ad, the creative style of the ad, the impact of the congruency between the ad message and the information provided in the DAL (in terms of expectancy, relevance, humour, etc.), and so on. Only the amount of information and the level of interactivity were manipulated in this study. Other aspects of the DAL, such as the quality of the information, the vividness (color, animation, graphics), or the occurrence of a simultaneous media context, could also be investigated.
CONCLUSION
The cognitive involvement and the intrinsic enjoyable experience evoked by the interactivity may explain these results, which are in line with earlier Internet studies (e.g., Sicilia et al., 2005). A higher level of interactivity presumably makes the DAL moderately complex without demanding too much cognitive resources to process it, and therefore leads to positive results. The amount of information had no negative effect on brand recall or on brand attitude. The level of interactivity had a positive effect on both brand recall and attitude. Therefore, this study could not confirm the expectations based on the complexity theory and the cognitive-load theory, which states that too much information causes the respondents to feel lost or overwhelmed, leading them to lose focus and interest rapidly.
There are several possible explanations for not finding the information overload effect. The effect of the amount of information appears to be fully mediated by the time spent in the DAL. Also, the effect of the level of interactivity is partially mediated by the time spent in the DAL. Consequently, if the amount of information and the level of interactivity increase, the respondent will also spend more time processing that interactive information. This may offer an explanation as to why the overload phenomenon did not occur. A second explanation can be offered based on the information processing insight that a consumer can experience information overload in decision making processing, but will not necessarily do so. Maybe in this study the information overload, and thus the negative advertising results, did not occur because the individuals did not allow it to happen, only processing the amount of information that they desired. A third possible explanation is based on the premise that when individuals get familiar and experienced with interactivity, the cognitive load induced by it may be reduced. As such, experienced Web users have less difficulty with processing interactive content than less experienced ones. The participants in our study, like many people nowadays, were probably used to frequently engaging in interactive information processing (e.g., on the Internet, third-generation mobile phones, ATMs, etc.), and therefore did not experience overload.
In conclusion, the study illustrates that the negative impact on brand responses of information overload induced by a complex advertising stimulus (manipulated by the amount of information and level of interactivity) is not likely to occur in a real-life interactive context. The interactivity does increase user control, and the user can decide on the sequence and how much time he or she spends processing the information, therefore managing the information load him- or herself. Our results show that interactivity can increase advertising effectiveness regardless of the amount of information provided. Moreover, the longer the viewer stays in the DAL (as a result of interaction possibilities and/or extra information), the more positive the advertising effects become.
KEY TERMS
Cognitive Overload: Cognitive overload occurs when the volume of information supply exceeds the information processing capacity of the individual.
Dedicated Advertising Location (DAL): A DAL contains clickable content featuring individual still screens providing additional product information.
Flow: Flow is an intrinsically motivated, optimal enjoyable mental state leading to increased attention, cognitive involvement, and a feeling of fun and escapism.
Interactive Digital Television (IDTV): IDTV is the merging of the Internet and television.
Interactivity: It is human-to-human interaction that places the emphasis on two-way communication, mutual discourse, feedback, and so forth, and message-to-human interaction, which is related to aspects of content such as user choice, user (information) control, structure, and so on.
Stimulus Complexity: This refers to the amount of variety and diversity in a stimulus pattern.
Telescopic Ad: It is a 30-second TV ad with a call-to-action button and clickable content or microsites featuring individual still screens providing additional product information.
