Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
transport city model such as found in London (40 per cent of trips by public transport,
20 per cent walk, 10 per cent cycle, 30 per cent low emission car); and the Copenhagen cycle
city model (20 per cent of trips by public transport, 10 per cent walk and 40 per cent
cycle, 30 per cent low emission car). Some cities may do 'better' than this - with a lower
mode share for the car. There are many future pathways, but perhaps the commonalities (in
2030) include the following six key elements:
1. Urban structure:
has become a critical policy tool in transport planning. It is shaped, at
the regional, city and local levels, to ensure that public transport and cycling is possible, with
high density and mixed use clusters developed along key public transport routes. Almost all
cities have been, or are being, redeveloped, including their outer areas, to support use of
walking, cycling and public transport. Higher density clusters of development are found around
all public transport interchanges. Interchange locations are developed as activity hubs. There
are many more people living and working in the city and other urban areas, with 'high people
intensity' uses such as employment located in the highly accessible areas. The amorphous
sprawl of development in the suburbs has been replaced with carefully re-planned polycentric
clusters of development. Growth area boundaries (e.g. green belts) are used to restrict
development spreading into rural areas, though the focus is on corridors of growth, centred
around public transport interchanges, rather than a simple encircling of urban areas. The
confidence to strategically plan development at the regional and urban level has been
rediscovered in places such as the UK, and the practice has spread internationally.
A key element here is the reallocation of scarce road space in cities to the most appropriate
use, and this varies by the time of day and the day of week. New networks of routes for
people, cycles and public transport mean less space for cars, and certain areas (e.g. parts of
city centres, particular residential areas and locations of high people activity) have no cars.
Achieving car-free areas, or areas where cars are restricted in their movement, is seen as an
important policy goal in all cities. The reticence of earlier years to develop such progressive
policy approaches has become very outdated. The quality of local facilities reduces the need
to travel and allows more multi-purpose activities, and the range of 'green' modes of transport
has reduced the need to own a car.
Reduced levels of car ownership in the city means that even more space can be reallocated
to other uses, and this new open space is often transformed into green space. This urban
quality changes attitudes to living in cities and the means of travel whilst there. Urban living
is a primary choice for many, and housing quality has been much improved, as there is more
supply and so housing is cheaper. Neighbourhoods are vibrant and there are opportunities to
access multiple employment, educational, social, entertainment and cultural activities. Hence
urban living is popular amongst many age cohorts: the 20-35 year group, but also those with
families and 'empty nesters' and the retired. All seek and value the better access to activities
that urban living offers. Private car ownership and use in the city is also very different to
previous years. Where one is needed, it is hired, shared or even borrowed, but this is usually
only when public transport or walking or cycling doesn't provide an option. Rather than the
city being organised around the car, the car has to adapt to the city, and eventually the city,
or large parts of it, flourishes without the car.
Many of the inaccessible areas in and around cities (inaccessible to public transport),
including the areas beyond the urban boundary, are used in ways that are less people- and
car-intensive, such as growing local agricultural produce, so that car dependency becomes
less of a problem. Also the need for long distance freight is reduced through increased local
sourcing.
