Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
2. Walking, cycling facilities and the public realm:
There has been a huge investment to
make cities more liveable and useable for pedestrians and cyclists, with extensive networks
of segregated pedestrian and cycle routes, cycle parking and cycle hire schemes. The progressive
cycling practice in the Netherlands and Denmark has spread around Europe, and internationally.
There are extensive networks of segregated and on-road cycle routes in all cities, together
with large cycle parking provision, hire and repair facilities. Cycling is now a very popular
means of travel, including for commuting; people are very aware of the health benefits of
active lifestyles. Road space is reallocated away from the private car, and packages of these
smaller walking and cycling schemes are now seen as 'major projects' in transport, rather
than viewed as 'Cinderella' schemes. There are no districts zoned for single uses, or where
only one type of people live or work. There are many small, interconnected streets, lined by
mixed uses. Electric bikes (two- and three-wheelers) are also very important in many contexts,
including in Asia, but also Europe and North America, and particularly in the suburbs.
3. Public transport:
There has similarly been huge investment in public transport, of all
modes, including metros in larger cities (following the London, New York, Paris and Shanghai
models), extensive BRT networks (the Curitiba and Bogotá model), tram systems (the French
city model), tram-train systems, feeder bus networks and other variants. All cities have an
extensive and mixed portfolio of public transport networks, including one or more different
modes. For inter-urban travel, high speed networks have largely replaced short haul air, and
slower speed networks have been electrified.
There is a revolution in the production and use of renewable energy; local generating facilities
(solar, wind, biothermal, biodigester, wave and tidal power, and algae ponds) produce electricity
or fuel, to be used in public and private transport, and by households and industry. All buildings
are clad with photovoltaic panels, designed to use natural light and heat, and rooftops are
green.
4. Traffic demand management measures:
There is much greater utilisation of TDM measures,
and a much greater acceptance that these are necessary elements of a sustainable transport
strategy. Measures include road pricing, parking restraint and behavioural measures. For
example, road pricing in the UK is charged at 15 p per mile (or more). Local business are
also subject to a transport and public realm tax (following the French city model), which is
used for local transport improvements. In London, for example, this has funded extensive
public transport, cycle and public realm improvements, including tram schemes in the suburbs.
Many urban motorways have been redeveloped to reduce traffic capacity, reallocating road
space to public transport and walking and cycling priority.
5. Low-emission vehicles:
The average total vehicle fleet (new and old vehicles) in all fleets
internationally is less than 90 gCO2/km in 2030, meaning that many vehicles are electric or
hybrid electric, and the use of petrol and diesel has been replaced with locally produced biofuels.
City vehicles are also small and low speed, which again radically improves their efficiency,
and has additional benefits of reducing accidents and the space needed for parking. Much of
this progress has been achieved with the setting of mandatory emissions standards in all coun-
tries. Car ownership levels are still relatively high in European countries, and growing in Asia
and other emerging countries, but usage patterns are very different. Clean vehicles (below the
100 gCO2/km threshold) now account for the vast majority of vehicles, including the larger
size and specification vehicles. There are many vehicles, including the electric options, with
significantly lower gCO2/km. There have been similar improvements in freight vehicles, with
