Navigation - Decreasing Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Gas Emissions in Transportation - page 209

the ground. The length and the altitude restrictions for landing and the required
turns for departure and arrival routes also influence fuel consumption. Planners who
design departure and arrival routes have to consider alleviating noise over popu-
lated areas and the terrain and the airspace requirements of nearby airports [ 13 ].
The airline must also decide the construction of aircraft, the types of on-board
equipment, the kind of license, and the rating of the pilots. On-board navigation
equipment must match with the radio waves to the ground equipment along the
flight path [ 14 ].
14.2.2 Information for Civil Aviation Personnel
No safe and efficient flight planning is possible without in-time knowledge of
actual and forecasted weather and the present and expected state of the flight
conditions along the route and during the flight. These facts influence fuel con-
sumption and emissions in different ways [ 15 ].
The demand, the role, and the importance of aviation information have sig-
nificantly changed with the evolution of:
• Communications, Navigation, and Surveillance [ 16 ];
• Air Traffic Management [ 17 ];
• Area Navigation (RNAV) [ 18 ];
• Required Navigation Performance [ 19 ]; and
• Airborne Computer-based Navigation Systems [ 20 ].
In aviation the requirements for quality, accuracy, precision, and integrity of air
traffic and terrain data are rising; see Table 14.1 .
14.2.3 Air Traffic Control Services
Each nation maintains its own Air Traffic Service (ATS) services responsible for
flights within its territory. The ATS system consists of flight information, alerts, air
traffic advisory, and air traffic control (ATC) services.
No aircraft is allowed to enter into or operate within a controlled airspace unless
it has ATC clearance, except for a few but strictly regulated cases. A flight is
controlled when it is subject to ATC clearance. Over the high seas, the ATC
services are provided according to regional agreements concluded by the nations
involved.
There are generally three basic controls and some subdivision services in air
traffic; see Table 14.2 [ 26 ].
ATC Services can be divided or integrated otherwise and further subdivisions
can be established according to the traffic volume and to the density of structural
elements, such as the airports and the airways. The terminal control of the airport