(100 b.c.-44 b.c.) statesman,general, writer
Julius Caesar is arguably the most famous historical figure of ancient Rome and one of the most famous men of all time. He had an indelible influence on the political, social, and military events of his time, and his life story has become one of history’s great epics, as his actions caused the downfall of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Roman Empire. In addition, he was a writer of no little talent, and his works set the standard for a unique literary genre, the military memoir.
Julius Caesar’s family was aristocratic but not particularly distinguished. At the time of Caesar’s birth, Rome was by far the strongest power in the Mediterranean region and was engaged in nearly continuous warfare with numerous enemies; it would be through service in these wars that Caesar would first come to prominence.
Though still a republic at the time of Caesar’s birth, the governmental structure of Rome had been designed when it was a small city-state, and the republican foundations were beginning to break down under the stress of gaining and controlling a far-reaching empire. In his early years, Caesar served the government in various military, political, and diplomatic posts. As time passed, he gradually worked his way up through the Roman hierarchy. He served as the chief financial officer of Roman-controlled Spain and later became responsible for public entertainment and religious functions in Rome. In 61 b.c., he became governor of a province in Spain, and he used the position to enrich himself and gain influence. Caesar was a gifted politician, being both shrewd and indomitable. He had no particular political ideology and strove entirely to satisfy his personal ambitions. Intellectually gifted, he followed the philosophy of epicurus and his own highly developed sense of honor.
In 60 b.c., Caesar was elected consul, the highest office in the Roman Republic. Now one of the most powerful men in Rome, he formed a partnership with two other politicians, Crassus and Pompey, creating what was called the “First Triumvirate.” In 58 b.c., hoping to raise his prestige through military victories, Caesar took command of the Roman armies in Gaul, now modern France. Over several years and numerous campaigns, Caesar’s armies waged relentless war on the Gallic tribes and fought several battles against native settlements in Germany and Britain. Caesar displayed a cunning military genius and a ruthless command of strategy. In 52 b.c., at the Siege of Alesia, the Gauls still resisting Roman rule were crushed.
During lulls in the fighting, Caesar began writing his famous Commentary on the War in Gaul. He wanted his achievements to be recorded so he could use them as political propaganda and as justification for his decisions. His was the first true military memoir.
Political leaders in Rome became increasingly fearful of Caesar’s growing power. Crassus had been killed, leaving Pompey and Caesar as rivals. After Caesar completed the conquest of Gaul, he turned his attention once more to political matters in Rome. In 49 b.c., the Senate demanded that Caesar turn over the command of his army. He refused to do so and instead marched his forces toward Rome, beginning a civil war that would topple the Roman Republic. Over the next several years, Caesar fought Pompey and his allies in numerous campaigns throughout the Mediterranean. By the time the war was over in 45 b.c., Caesar had emerged victorious and was completely in control of Rome and all its territory.
Caesar’s writings during the time of the civil war were produced mainly to increase his support among the people and damage his enemies’ reputations. He penned a bitter denunciation of his deceased rival Cato, named the Anticato, and also wrote Commentary on the Civil Wars, which was very similar to the work he had written on the war in Gaul. In his clear and straightforward style, Caesar gives accounts of the military and political events of the conflict. He writes in the third person, and his prose resembles that of a newspaper reporter, giving a simple and clear description of what is happening. Nevertheless, these accounts served primarily as propaganda to embellish Caesar’s achievements at the expense of his opposition.
Once in possession of Rome, Caesar made himself dictator and thereby became the unchallenged ruler of the Roman world. He began a program of ambitious reforms designed to improve life for average Roman citizens and ensure his popularity. Many people, however, feared Caesar would attempt to make himself king and thus completely destroy whatever was left of the Roman Republic. On March 15,44 b.c., Caesar was assassinated by a group of senators. The circumstances surrounding Caesar’s assassination have fascinated people for 2,000 years and serve as the subject matter for one of the greatest plays in English history, William Shakespeare’s The Tragedy of Julius Caesar (1623).
Caesar was one of the most influential figures of Western history. His political, military, and literary skills were remarkable, and his personality, willpower, and amazing abilities continue to fascinate people to the present day. He is remembered as one of the most capable men of ancient times.
Critical Analysis
Caesar is best known for his political and military achievements, but it is also acknowledged that he was a writer of considerable ability. The most famous piece of literature he produced was Commentary on the War in Gaul, a firsthand account of his campaigns in that region. The Commentary’s seven books describe the campaigns from 58 to 52 b.c. Sometime later, a former staff officer of Caesar’s named Aulus hirtius added an eighth book, which completes the narrative.
Caesar writes in the third person, referring to himself as Caesar, though he makes occasional references to “our” troops. His commentary describes battles and sieges not dramatically but rather dispassionately, seemingly striving for accuracy instead of excitement. Yet his prose contains its own dynamic energy, as in this description in S. A. Han-ford’s translation of a turn in the battle against the Nervii:
… the Roman cavalry and light-armed troops, routed by the first attack, were in the act of retreating into the camp, when they found themselves face to face with the Nervii . . . The servants … on looking back and seeing the enemy in the camp immediately ran for their lives. Meanwhile shouting and din arose from the drivers coming up with the baggage, who rushed panic-stricken in every direction.
For the most part Caesar strives to portray himself as a determined man performing a necessary mission, but at times he likes to add a touch of the dashing hero, for instance in this passage where he describes how he turned the Nervii battle with a heroic gesture:
As the situation was critical and no reserves were available, Caesar snatched a shield from a soldier in the rear … made his way to the front line, addressed each centurion by name, and shouted encouragement to the rest of the troops…. His coming gave them fresh heart and hope; each man wanted to do his best under the eyes of his commander-in-chief, however desperate the peril.
Caesar also describes himself as a merciful man and uses such opportunities to remind his readers how grateful they should be to him. After sending word to Rome of his victory against the Atuatuci, he observes that “a public thanksgiving of fifteen days was decreed to celebrate his achievements—a greater honour than had previously been granted to anyone.”
Despite the ostensibly objective tone of the Gallic Wars, it focuses more on Caesar’s successes and less on his failures, glossing over many of the serious setbacks and atrocities committed by his men. He intended that this work, like his Commentary on the Civil War, would serve first as political propaganda and later as a record of achievements that would elevate his reputation well after his death. Caesar presents himself as a traditional soldier, serving the interests of Rome, and nowhere in the narrative does one find any hint of the ambitious and unscrupulous politician that Caesar truly was.
Caesar’s Commentary on the War in Gaul has become the classic military memoir, which has evolved into a unique literary genre. Like the records of Cornelius tacitus, Caesar’s account is a valuable source of historical information as well as an admirable piece of Latin prose.
English Versions of Works by Julius Caesar
Caesar. Translated by A. G. Peskett. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1984.
The Civil War. Translated by Jane F. Gardner. New York: Viking Press, 1976.
The Conquest of Gaul. Translated by S. A. Hanford. New York: Viking Press, 1983. The Gallic War. Translated by Carolyn Hammond. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Works about Julius Caesar
Gelzer, Matthias. Caesar: Politician and Statesman. Translated by Peter Needham. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1985.
Meier, Christian. Caesar: A Biography. Translated by David McLintock. New York: Basic Books, 1982.
Shakespeare, William. The Tragedy ofJulius Caesar. New York: Washington Square Press, 2004.
Suetonius. The Twelve Caesars. Translated by Robert Graves. New York: Penguin, 2003.
