The English word hell comes from hel, the abode of the dead and the underworld of Norse mythology. In the Bible, the Hebrew word Sheol and the Greek word Hddes refer to the netherworld, a shadowy realm of the dead more than a place of torment (though some New Testament texts use Hddes to refer to punishment or the dominion of death; see Luke 16:23, Matt. 16:18, and Rev. 6:8).
The biblical word for the state of postmortem punishment is Gehenna, from the Hebrew ge-hinnom, an abbreviation for the "valley of the son of Hinnom," a place south of Jerusalem known for idolatry and human sacrifice (see 2 Kings 23:10 and Jer. 7:31-32). In Jewish apocalyptic and rabbinic literature, Gehenna often refers to a place of darkness, fire, and punishment for the wicked— a punishment variously conceived as everlasting, temporary, or ending in annihilation. In modern times, many Jews have rejected the concept of eternal damnation.
In the New Testament, Gehenna is used for the state of everlasting punishment and fire (see Matt. 5:22, Mark 9:43, and James 3:6), though the Greek word Tartarus does appear (see 2 Pet. 2:4). The concept of eternal punishment is expressed through images of "everlasting fire" (Matt. 18:8 and 25:41), "weeping and gnashing of teeth" (Matt. 8:12), "fire and brimstone" (Rev. 14:10), and a "pool of fire" (Rev. 19:20). People confined to the everlasting fire include those who despise the needy (Matt. 25:41—46), as well as "cowards, the faithless, the polluted, murderers, fornicators, sorcerers, idolaters and liars" (Rev. 21:8). In addition to damned humans, Satan and the fallen angels also receive everlasting punishment (see Jude 6, Matt. 25:41, and Rev. 20:10).
Christian theology developed an understanding of hell as everlasting punishment and exclusion from heaven. In the Middle Ages, temporary purifications after death (purgatory) were distinguished from the everlasting torments of hell, as was the state of limbo, in which the souls of unbaptized babies and virtuous non-Christians were deprived of the beatific vision but did not suffer the torments of hell. Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) gave poetic expression to limbo and the levels of hell in his Inferno, the first part of his Divine Comedy, which continues with Purgatory and Paradise.
Traditional Christians (whether Catholic, Orthodox, or Protestant) affirm hell as a true possibility, either for those who culpably reject the Christian Gospel or who die in a state of "mortal sin." The everlasting nature of hell, even after the resurrection of the body, was affirmed at various Church councils (e.g., the local synod of Constantinople of 543 and the Fourth Lateran Council of 1215). Some Christians hope for universal salvation, but most Christian denominations still affirm the possibility of eternal damnation. Many Christians today believe that sincere non-Christians, who are outside of the Church "through no fault of their own," might still achieve salvation (see Catechism of the Catholic Church, no. 847).
The ancient Greeks and Romans had multiple concepts of the underworld and the fate of the dead. In the mystery religions and fertility cults, Hddes or the underworld played a prominent role in themes of death and rebirth. By the fifth century BCE (perhaps due to Egyptian and Persian influences), the Greeks had developed concepts of rewards and punishments after death, with Tarturus, the lower realm of Hddes, as the place of punishment for the wicked. Platonism and Neoplatonism incorporated beliefs in reincarnation and the transmigration of souls, which made purification from wrongdoing achievable over multiple lifetimes.
In the ancient world, the Egyptians and the Zoroastrians from Persia were most pronounced in their affirmations of rewards and punishments after death. Around 1750 BCE, the Egyptian Book of Going Forth by Day (or Book of the Dead) described how the soul or heart of the deceased person is weighed on a scale balanced by the "feather of truth." Rewards or punishments then follow (with complete destruction being one possibility).
The Persian religion of Zoroastrianism (from the prophet Zoroaster/Zarathustra, circa ninth or tenth century BCE) describes judgment after death as the crossing of the Chinvat Bridge toward Paradise. The souls of the wicked are tossed off the bridge into hell, whereas the righteous souls enter Paradise and other souls go to a state of limbo. At the end of time, the souls of the deceased are reunited with their bodies and experience a final judgment. The souls in limbo (and perhaps those in hell) then enter Paradise after a final purification. The evil spirit Angra Mainyu and other demons are, however, consigned to hell forever.
Islam, like Christianity and Zoroastrianism, affirms judgment after death and a future resurrection of the body, as well as rewards in heaven (paradise) and punishments in hell. Muslims believe that God (Allah) assigns certain angels to keep a record of human deeds, and this record will determine one’s fate after death. After death, those who are wicked begin to experience the hellfire— even in the grave prior to the Day of Judgment and the resurrection of the body. The righteous souls, in turn, begin to experience the rewards of Paradise, which continue forever after the reunion with their bodies. Some Muslims, following 2:262 and 5:69 of the Qur’an, believe that followers of other religions can escape hell and enter Paradise. Others, following 4:56, believe severe punishments await those who deny the Qur’an as God’s revelation.
Classical Chinese culture recognized some type of life after death, but a clear and consistent concept of hell never developed. Confucius (c. 551-479 BCE) was reluctant to talk about the afterlife, and Taoism tended toward a naturalism that denied personal survival after death.
Jainism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Sikhism—the main religions originating in India—all affirm reincarnation and the transmigration of souls; moreover, Hindus and Buddhists recognize thousands of hells. Because of reincarnation, however, the possibility of eventual purification and deliverance is maintained, even if this liberation may require countless lifetimes.
The fear of hell remains a living reality among many people today, especially in Christian and Muslim circles. In modern secular societies, however, the word hell has assumed a largely metaphorical meaning. Situations of poverty, violence, and devastation are described frequently as "living hells." Many psychologists and sociologists understand hell as an archetype of the deepest fears of the human imagination, expressing the thoughts of torture, rejection, and abandonment that circulate within the human psyche.
