"Discovery consists of seeing what everyone else has seen and thinking what no one else has thought." -Albert Szent-Georgyi (1893-1986)
It would be impossible to list all the important people who have made major contributions to science in this chapter. While some names are familiar, almost household words—Newton, Edison, Curie, Einstein— you may never have heard of other scientists who have made equally important contributions. Can you name any famous female scientist other than Madame Curie? Read this and you’ll discover a woman whose contribution to computing helped make your personal computer possible. Do you know how the scientific method came about? It happened in the Middle East, but probably not in the place you’d imagine. And how about zero, the concept that expanded mathematics? It started with a dot in that place called India.
Western Science Began in Greece
Although the modern concept of science is only about 500 years old, ancient Greek philosophers laid the foundation of Western scientific ideas. Aristotle is perhaps the most famous and influential of these philosophers, but there were many others, including Democritus (Chapter 21), who developed the idea of a smallest particle of matter. Many science historians attribute the beginnings of modern science to Thales of Miletus, who presented rational explanations for physical phenomena that were nonreligious in nature, arguing, for example, that lightning bolts were not tossed from Mount Olympus by the god Zeus. Here is a short list of Greek scientists worth knowing about.
♦ Archimedes stated: The apparent loss in weight of a body immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the displaced fluid. Although his famous statement about being able to move the world with the proper fulcrum was not practical, he invented a machine that allowed shipbuilders to lift ships from a dock down to the sea.
♦ Eratosthenes calculated the circumference of Earth by comparing the angle of a pole’s shadow at Alexandria, Egypt, at noon and the sun being directly overhead a well in Syene in the southern part of the country during the summer solstice.
♦ Euclid made mathematic knowledge systematic and developed mathematical principles that are still important today, the most prominent being his proof that the amount of prime numbers is infinite.
Fast Facts
Eratosthenes recognized that the sun was directly over Syene, Egypt, on the summer solstice and that Alexandria was due north of Syene (which is Aswan in modern Egypt). He knew from a previous measurement that in Alexandria at that exact moment, the angle of elevation of the sun would be V50 of a full circle (7°12′) south of the zenith. Using the distance between the cities (5,000 "stadia" by Greek standards), he multiplied 5,000 stadia by 50 and determined Earth’s circumference to be 250,000 stadia, which isn’t far off the modern circumference measurement of 24,900 miles.
Definition
A prime number is any number greater than 1 that can be divided only by the number 1 and itself, such as 2, 3, 5, 7 and 11. Prime numbers are important; many algorithms to provide computer cryptography are based on very large prime numbers.
♦ Galen went from treating gladiators to being the court physician of Roman emperors like Marcus Aurelius. Prior to Galen, physicians thought the arteries in the body carried air, not blood. He also mapped out the majority of cranial nerves. His writings were so influential they basically went unquestioned for a thousand years.
♦ Hippocrates of Cos gave us the Hippocratic Oath and proved that diseases had a logical and rational cause that could be determined by observing everything about a patient.
♦ Ptolemy’s astronomical book, the Megale Syntaxis ("Big Explanation"), summarized astronomical knowledge in the second century, and remained the most important Western work on the subject for 14 centuries following.
The Indians Were There First
Much of science depends on math, and according to scholars in the country of India, the math the world uses today originated there long ago. Indian school texts attribute the invention of zero to a fellow name Aryabhatt, born in 476 C.E. His text on mathematics entitled Aryabhatiyam dealt with calculating the motion of the planets and the time of eclipses. According to Indian scholars, Aryabhatt put forth the concept of zero and calculated the value of pi to its commonly expressed value—3.1416.
"Objects fall on earth due to a force of attraction by the Earth. Therefore, the Earth, planets, constellations, moon, and sun are held in orbit due to this attraction."
Another important ancient Indian scientist was Bhaskaracharya, whose work Siddhant Shiromani describes mathematical techniques and includes many discussions on astronomy. He is considered a genius in algebra, arithmetic, and geometry, as well as being knowledgeable about Earth, including determining that at the poles of the planet there are roughly six months of day and night. His determination of the circumference of Earth was astonishingly close to modern calculations.
Historic record indicates that the decimal system came to the West via Arab scholars in the ninth century from the translation of the Brahmasphutasiddhanta by the Indian scientist Brahmagupta. Prior to adopting this numeric system from the Arabs, Europeans were using Roman numerals.
Masters of the Middle Kingdom
Although the West is still becoming accustomed to Chinese medicine techniques such as acupuncture, ideas and practices that originated in ancient China have been transforming the world for millennia. Since so many scholars and scientists worked under the rule of emperors, individual scientific achievement by the Chinese can be hard to determine. For example, the Great Wall of China was a magnificent structural achievement, constructed between 220 and 200 B.C.E. under the first Chinese Emperor Qin Shi Huang, but its architect remains unknown.
We do have records, however, showing that the first seismograph for measuring earthquakes was invented by Zhang Heng (78-139 C.E.). It was an instrument in which balls would drop into an urnlike container and reveal the time and direction of an earthquake. And supposedly, a man named Zai-Lun (50-118 C.E.) first invented paper for writing; he was recognized on a 1962 Chinese stamp.
During the Tang Dynasty 618 C.E. to 907 C.E., considered the golden age of early China, four of the most important inventions of all time came into regular use. The compass, gunpowder, papermaking, and printing all had earlier origins but were not commonplace. These items changed China and then the rest of the world as knowledge traveled from China through the Arab world and then to Europe and beyond.
While Johannes Gutenberg is credited with the invention of movable type in 1455, Bi Sheng in China i nvented movable type in the eleventh century. The European woodblocks used for printing in the fourteenth century used a technique similar to Chinese woodblocks.
Other advances attributed to scholars and inventors of the Tang Dynasty include cast iron, dry docks, the horse collar, matches, the iron plough, and even the parachute. The Tang Dynasty was largely a golden age of literature and art, an inspiring, progressive, and stable society. The creation of woodblock printing made information (with illustrations) available to a great many more people.
During this period, in 725 C.E., the Buddhist monk Yi Xing invented the world’s first clockwork escapement mechanism, which had a bell struck automatically every hour; this was the precursor to modern clocks.
In the centuries following, during the Song Dynasty (960-1279 C.E.), many other technological breakthroughs were achieved in China. One important scientist during this period was Shen Kuo, who discovered the concept of true north and calculated the position of the pole star that had shifted over the centuries. Another notable creation was the "pound lock" used in canals and rivers; this invention made the Panama Canal possible. Although the mechanism may have been used by Romans and others, the version invented in 984 C.E. by engineer Qiao Weiyo in Huainan was a prototype for the type of locks in current use.
Fast Facts
The pull of gravity from the sun and moon acts on the equatorial bulge of Earth that arises during its rotation. Because of this, Earth’s axis wobbles in its orbit, covering a circle in a period of 26,000 years. This phenomenon, known as precession, affects the equinoxes and solstices, because the background stars in the sky do not remain constant. Our current pole star, Polaris, which can be seen by observing the alignment of two stars in the "Big Dipper," was just another star in the sky in ancient times. Four thousand years ago, the pole star was Thuban in the Draco the Dragon constellation.
Arabic Numbers and the Scientific Method
Arab scholars advanced many concepts in mathematics, including the concept of zero and the development of algebra. The idea of zero is so ingrained in our system of using numbers that it is impossible to picture it as anything other than a natural concept, apparent to everyone. It seems strange that neither the Greeks nor the Romans used the concept, nor did European cultures after the demise of the Roman Empire. It was an Italian mathematician, Leonardo of Pisa (more commonly known as "Fibonacci"), who introduced Arabic numerals to Europe in the Middle Ages. The Persian mathematician Al-Khwarizmi, considered to be the father of algebra, wrote the first book on the systematic solution of linear and quadratic equations. Although Al-Khwarizmi is often credited with the invention of the concept of zero, he mentions his source in his book On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals, which was written about 825 C.E.
Most people think that multiplication is impossible with Roman numerals, particularly since they had no zero. Of course, they did multiply. The techniques for multiplication with Roman numerals is explained in detail on some websites. Have a look at www. legionxxiv.org/numerals and www.phy6.org/outreach/edu/roman.htm to get the idea. In short, the Romans’ method boiled down to binary notations, with each digit representing a power of 2.
A polymath (someone distinguished in several fields of study) named Ibn al-Haytham (also known as Alhacen, 965-1039 C.E.) pioneered both modern optics and the scientific method. Muslim scientists kept careful records, and the experiments noted by Ibn al-Haytham in his Book of Optics published in 1021 is recognized as the beginning of the modern scientific method. The evidence established by his experiments were systematically repeated to prove that ancient Greek ideas that (a) human eyes emit rays of light (an idea supported by Euclid), and (b) that physical objects emit physical particles which are received by the eyes, were both wrong. The steps he used are the same scientists employ today:
1. Observation
2. Statement of the problem
3. Formulation of the hypothesis
4. Testing of the hypothesis using experimentation
5. Analysis of experimental results
6. Interpretation of data and formulation of the conclusion
7. Publication of findings
Hard as it may seem to believe that people thought otherwise, Ibn al-Haytham was the first to prove that light travels in straight lines, which he did over many years, using methods like placing straight sticks or threads pulled tight next to beams of light streaming through pinholes into dark rooms. Vision, he demonstrated, was about the eye perceiving these rays of light traveling in straight lines. Ibn al-Haytham’s work in optics helped later in the development of the telescope, so in many ways, this scientist’s life work was far-reaching.
In psychological terms, visual perception is the ability to interpret the information from visible light that reaches the eyes. By explaining in Book III of his Book of Optics that vision truly occurs in the brain, rather than the eyes, Ibn al-Haytham became the first scientist to venture into the psychology of sight. Understanding of what is seen, he demonstrated, depends entirely on the experience of the person doing the observing.
A Short List of More Recent Scientists
So far, this chapter has discussed names which, with the exception of some of the Greeks, are probably unfamiliar to most readers. A fair amount of discussion was necessary to establish the context of times and cultures. The rest of this chapter will mention people who may be more familiar. There is no intention to give them short shrift, but each only receives too-short acknowledgment. The following list includes a few notable scientists of the past few hundred years. Others have been mentioned in previous chapters. It is not comprehensive, though.
♦ Leo Baekeland (1863-1944)—Chemist who invented the first commercial plastic, Bakelite. Bakelite was used extensively for radio, telephones, and electrical insulators.
♦ Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922)—The inventor of the telephone, who also invented a metal detector and had notable contributions in aeronautics.
♦ Marie Curie (1867-1934)—Polish physicist and pioneer in the field of radioactivity. She was twice honored as a Nobel laureate and one of only two people to win in two different sciences.
♦ Charles Darwin (1809-1882)—English naturalist whose 1859 book The Origin of Species established evolution as the dominant scientific explanation of species in nature.
♦ Thomas Edison (1847-1931)—American inventor who is most famous for the phonograph and light bulb. One of the first to apply principles of mass production to the process of invention, he received a record 1,093 U.S. patents.
♦ Albert Einstein (1879-1955)—German-born theoretical physicist best known for the theory of relativity and the mass-energy equivalence formula, E = mc2. Einstein’s special theory of relativity reconciled mechanics with electromag-netism. His general theory of relativity, by extending relativity to nonuniform motion, created a new theory of gravitation and predicted the later proven gravitational bending of light.
♦ Michael Faraday (1791-1867)—English physicist and chemist who discovered diamagnetism, electromagnetic induction, electromagnetic rotation, field theory, and the magneto-optical effect.
♦ Enrico Fermi (1901-1954)—Italian physicist noted for his work in the development of the first nuclear reactor and developments in quantum theory.
♦ Sir Alexander Fleming (1881-1955)—Scottish biologist and pharmacologist whose many achievements include the discovery of the antibiotic penicillin in 1928.
♦ Rosalind Elsie Franklin (1920-1958)—A pioneer molecular biologist responsible for much of the work that led to the understanding of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
♦ Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)—Austrian neurologist and psychiatrist who was the founder of psychoanalysis.
♦ Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)—An Italian scientist who formulated the basic law of falling bodies and is viewed as the father of modern physics.
♦ Rear Admiral Grace Murray Hopper (1906-1992)—American computer scientist and United States Navy officer who developed the first compiler for the computer programming language COBOL and popularized the idea that programs could be written in language close to English rather than in machine code used at the time.
♦ Edwin Hubble (1889-1953)—American astronomer who discovered the red shift of galaxies and developed the idea of an expanding universe.
♦ Joseph Lister (1827-1912)—An English surgeon who first promoted the idea of sterile surgery. (Listerine mouthwash is named for him.)
♦ Guglielmo Marconi (1847-1937)—An Italian inventor known for inventing the radio (although Nikola Tesla may have done it first).
♦ Samuel F. B. Morse (1791-1872)—American creator of the telegraph and co-inventor, with Alfred Vail, of the Morse code.
♦ Isaac Newton (1643-1727)—English physicist and mathematician most noted for his laws of motion and of gravitation. Newton also shares credit with Gottfried Leibniz for the invention of the calculus.
♦ Alfred Nobel (1833-1896)—Swedish chemist and businessman who invented dynamite and established the Nobel Prize.
♦ J. Robert Oppenheimer (1904-1967)—American theoretical physicist directed the Manhattan Project and was known as the "father of the atomic bomb."
♦ Nikolaus Otto (1832-1891)—German inventor of the first four-stroke internal-combustion engine that was the basis of current automobile motors.
♦ Louis Pasteur (1822-1895)—French chemist and microbiologist who confirmed the germ theory of disease, developed a process for making milk safe, and created the first vaccine for rabies, among his many achievements.
♦ Linus Pauling (1901-1994)—American scientist who was one of the first to work in the fields of molecular biology, orthomolecular medicine, and quantum chemistry, and who is the only person other than Marie Curie to receive a Nobel Prize in two different fields.
♦ Vera Rubin (1928- )—American astronomer who has done work on the rotation rates and structures of galaxies. Her discoveries have provided evidence of dark matter.
♦ Nikola Tesla (1856-1943)—Serbian/American physicist and inventor who made substantial contributions in electricity and magnetism, including alternating electric current and AC motors.
♦ Werner von Braun (1912-1977)—German scientist who developed rocket technology in both Germany and the United States and is seen as the father of the U.S. space program.
♦ James Watson and Francis Crick (1928- ; 1916-2004)—Discoverers of the DNA molecular structure, probably the most important biological discovery of the twentieth century.
♦ James Watt (1736-1819)—Scottish inventor and engineer who improved the steam engine and accelerated the Industrial Revolution.
♦ Orville Wright and Wilbur Wright (1871-1948; 1867-1912)—American brothers who invented and built the world’s first successful airplane and made the first sustained heavier-than-air human flight on December 17, 1903, at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina.
Scientific research goes on every day around the world. Millions of scientists contribute to our lives, working in universities, manufacturing companies, hospitals, and many other places.
