Medicinal Uses (Annatto) —
Seeds and latex used for tumors, cancer, and condyloma. Seeds gargled with vinegar and rice water for cancer of the mouth. Leaf infusion used in Costa Rica to prevent baldness. Leaf infusion gargled for tonsilitis. Bolivians press leaves on aching body parts. Seeds are reportedly aphrodisiac, astringent, cordial, expectorant (laxative and vermifuge), and febrifugal. Astringent febrifugal fruit pulp is used for dysentery and kidney disease. The reddish paste is applied as an unguent to burns. Considered a cosmetic, dye, food, hair dressing, medicine, ornamental tree, and vitamin source. In India, where the useful ornamental weed tree has established itself, as it has pantropically, leaves are used for jaundice and snakebite, the root bark for fevers, including malaria. Fruits are considered astringent and laxative. The plant is also recommended for gonorrhea (MPI). The hot water extracts potently inhibit lens aldose reductase, perhaps due to isoscutellarein (X1814628).
Here’s what Rodolfo Vasquez and I had to say about the plant a few years back in our Amazonian Ethnobotanical Dictionary. The plant is thriving in our ReNuPeRu Ethnobotanical Garden there. “Bixa orellana’” L. Bixaceae. Achote, Achiote amarillo. Cultivated. Natives mainly use it for food coloring and to decorate their bodies. There are experimental plots for the extraction of bixin. In Piura, the shoot decoction is considered antidysenteric, antipyretic, antiseptic, antivenereal, aphrodisiac, and astringent (GEO). The foliage is used to treat skin problems and hepatitis; also used as aphrodisiac, antidysenteric, and antipyretic. Considered good for the digestive system and for treatment of liver disease. Very effective as a gargle for tonsilitis (DAV). Chinatecas poultice leaves on cuts to avoid scars (DAV). People from Cojedes use the flower infusion as purge and to avoid phlegm in newborn babies. Kayapo massage stomachs of women in labor with the leaves. Waunana use to dye demijohns and baskets. Bark yields a gum similar to gum arabic. Fiber used as cordage. Kayapo use to tint to the body (DAV). Dye said to be an antidote for HCN (SAR). Seeds believed
to be expectorant, the roots digestive (SAR) and antitussive (BDS). Around Explorama, fresh leaf stalks, devoid of blades, are inserted into a glass of water; the mucilage that forms is applied in conjunctivitis (DAV). It is recommended in the Amazon for pink-eye (conjunctivitis), which more often than not in Latin America is viral. Mustalish notes, perhaps thankfully, that some shamans “extract the vascular fluids from young stems as a treatment for conjunctivitis and to relieve the discomfort of corneal abrasions” (Mustalish and Baxter, 2001). Yes, I saw our shaman Antonio Montero Pisco treating Mustalish successfully for corneal abrasions. Annatto dye is a potential rare cause of anaphylaxis, causing angiodema, hypotension, and urticaria (X1994783, DAD).
Note that nowhere do we mention prostate. But by January 2001, Peruvians were manufacturing processed supplements, dominated by Bixa for BPH. The label on one product read “Contiene achiote ‘C,’ Una de gato, Chanca piedras, etc.” In Spanish, it also says, “Keep out of the reach of children” and “Store in a cool dry place.” There’s even an expiration date. But it doesn’t specifically tell you that you are taking it for prostate health (“Prostasana;” the title alone tells you), nor how much to take for your prostate. The first three herbs mentioned are common around my Peruvian haunts, annatto, Bixa orellana; cat’s claw, Uncaria spp.; stonebreaker, Phyllanthus niruri. None of my early literature suggested achiote for the prostate. But it does contain lycopene and several carotenoid derivatives of lycopene.
Some questions regarding the safety of ingesting the tea for diabetes mellitus have been raised, having found in fact a hyperglycemic activity for trans-bixin. Perhaps annatto should be counter-indicated for diabetics. The toxicity is “low grade,” especially in well nourished experimental animals. Toxicity commences in dogs given 60 mg/kg trans-bixin.
Indications (Annatto) —
Acne (f; 60P); Alopecia (f; DAD); Asthma (f; JFM); Bacteria (1; 60P;
FNF; TRA); Bite (f; MPI); Bleeding (1; WO2); Blister (f; WO2); Burn (f; DAD; TRA; WO2);
Cancer (f; JLH); Cancer, mouth (f; BOW; DAD); Childbirth (f; BOW; DAV; IED);Colic (f; BOW); Condylomata (f; JLH); Conjunctivosis (1; DAV; FNF); Dermatosis (f; JFM); Diabetes (1; FNF;
JFM; WO2); Diarrhea (f; IED; JFM); Dysentery (f; 60P; DEP; JFM; WO2); Dyspnea (f; JFM); Epilepsy (f; WO2); Eruption (f; JFM); Fever (f; 60P; JFM; MPI; WO2); Flu (f; JFM); Gastrosis
(f; DAV); Glaucoma (1; X1814628); Gonorrhea (1; JFM; MPI; TRA); Headache (f; JFM); Hemorrhoid (f; JFM); Hepatosis (f; DAV; JFM); High Blood Pressure (1; 60P; WO2); High Blood Sugar (1; 60P); Infection (1; FNF; WO2); Inflammation (1; FNF); Jaundice (f; JFM; WO2); Leprosy (f;
JFM; WO2); Malaria (f; MPI; WO2); Measles (f; JFM); Nausea (f; JFM); Nephrosis (f; DAD;
DEP); Pain (f; DAD); Parasite (1; DAD); Pleurisy (f; JFM); Prostatosis (1; FNF); Pulmonosis (f; IED); Respirosis (f; IED); Salmonella (1; TRA); Scar (f; WO2); Snakebite (f; MPI); Sore (f; JLH;
WO2); Sore Throat (f; JFM; WO2); Stomachache (f; JFM); Stomatosis (f; DAD; JFM); Tonsilosis (f; DAV); Tumor (f; JLH); Uterosis (f; JFM); VD (f; DAV; JFM; MPI); Vomiting (f; JFM); Worm (f; DAD); Wound (f; JFM); Yeast (1; FNF; TRA).
Annatto for conjuctivosis:
• Antibacterial: ellagic-acid; lignin; salicylic-acid
• Antiinflammatory: ellagic-acid; luteolin-7-glucoside; salicylic-acid
• Antiviral: ellagic-acid; lignin; luteolin-7-glucoside
• COX-2-Inhibitor: salicylic-acid
• Cyclooxygenase-Inhibitor: salicylic-acid
Annatto for diabetes:
• Aldose-Reductase-Inhibitor: ellagic-acid; luteolin-7-glucoside; salicylic-acid
• Antioxidant: bixin; crocetin; cyanidin; ellagic-acid; lignin; lutein; salicylic-acid
• Antiperoxidant: ellagic-acid
• Antiradicular: lutein
• Hypocholesterolemic: crocetin; lignin
• Hypoglycemic: salicyclic-acid
• Thermogenic: salicylic-acid
Other Uses (Annatto) —
First imported into Europe in the 16th century, annatto was first cultivated in India in 1787. Annatto is cultivated for its seeds, the bright crimson seed coats of which yield the red dye bixin (80%) and the yellow dye orellin (20%). This is one of the few FDA approved natural colorants. Bixin is used to impart color to certain foods (e.g., butter, cheese, margarine), foodstuffs, and wax polishes. Mercadente et al. (1997) remind us that annatto is second in importance among natural colorants. The seeds of achiote, alias roucou, are briefly steeped in hot oil or lard, which is then strained, cooled, and used as coloring and flavoring for fish, meat, poultry, rice, and vegetables (FAC). Also used to tint baked goods, drinks, fats, ice-cream, salad dressing, snacks, and yoghurts. As a colorant, it may still have antioxidant properties. Martinez-Tome et al. (2001) reported that at 5% concentration > annatto > BHA > sweet paprika > cumin > hot paprika > saffron > BHT at 100 Ltg/g as an antioxidant. In Yucatan, the whole seeds are ground with various spices into a paste, giving a more pronounced color and flavor. Mexicans stain poultry and suckling pigs with a paste of the seeds ground with other spices. Widely used in Latin America to color rice, soups, and others, including meats. Aztecs mixed ground annatto seed to a chocolate beverage. Annatto is used as body paint and hair dressing by Amerindians, serving for lipstick and rouge. In the Philippines, seeds are ground for a condiment. Jamaicans use annatto, with chiles and onions, with their national dish, salt cod and akee. Sausages colored with annatto do not lose their color. One tsp powdered seed to a cup of water can nicely color a dish of rice (AAR). Yes, this dirt cheap colorant, especially in the tropics where Bixa is almost a weed tree, is incredibly cheaper, and perhaps healthier, than the world’s most expensive spice, saffron. Bown (2001) notes that annatto is used to stain maggots red to make them more appealing as fish bait. Bixin has been used as a textile dye for cotton and silk. For printing purposes, the dye is dissolved in caustic soda and developed with acid, alum, or stannous chloride. Brown shoe polish is made from the seeds, and floor wax is made by dissolving the dye in kerosene. A fairly good fiber may be obtained from the bark, which also contains small amounts of dye. A gum somewhat similar to gum arabic can be extracted from the trunk. Wood used for firesticks and the bark for cordage. Roots said to impart the taste and color of saffron to meats. It is said to be one of the few shrubs that can grow through and kill the dreaded lalang grass. Used as a wind break in coffee and tea plantations. (AAR, BOW, DAD, FAC, WO2).
For more information on activities, dosages, and contraindications, see the CRC Handtopic of Medicinal Herbs, ed. 2, et al., 2002.
Cultivation (Annatto) —
Soil should be prepared in the same manner as for cotton. Seeds, previously softened by soaking in water, are planted in holes or furrows 2.5-3.5 m apart in shaded nurseries. Seeds germinate in 8-10 days. As the young plants develop, they should be protected by artificial shade or intercrops, with increased light as they get older. When 15-25 inches high, they are ready for outplanting, spaced for final distribution at 4.5-6 m apart. Plantings fare well if in 60 cm cubed plots filled with well aged farm manure. Water well at planting. Can be intercropped with cassava, corn, and malanga. After 3 months, plantation should be weeded and superfluous plants removed. Except for periodical weeding, the plantation needs little attention. ANAI recommends growing medicinal or culinary herbs, like lemongrass, between the shrubs (DAD, WO2). Collection of seed may begin as early as 18 months, a full crop expected 3-4 years after sowing. Trees remain productive for 10-15 years. Capsules are gathered, usually by hand, when they are reddish and beginning to break open. It is wise to prune branches rather vigorously when harvesting the capsules; pruned plants yield better. Capsules are dried in the shade for about 10 days then exposed to the sun until all have opened. Clusters and seeds are then placed in a bag and beaten with a stick to loosen the seed. Thus, seeds are easily removed from the capsule, and little dye is
lost. Seeds are then sifted to separate seed from trash. Seed is again sun-dried 4-6 hours before bagging. For home extraction of dye/spice, pouring hot water over the pulp and seeds to macerate and separate them by pounding with a wooden pestle. Remove seeds, letting the pulp settle, pouring off excess water; dry pulp gradually in the shade. In India, the plant produces throughout the year, with two main crops in March and September. In Hawaii, harvests are in May, September, and the best yields are obtained in January, with about 44 kg/ha for round pod variety, and 939 kg/ha for pointed-pod variety. A tree should yield 4.5-5 kg dried seed per year. An average yield of 500-2000 kg/ha per year is satisfactory, but up to 4500 kg/ha have been reported in five-year old fields; 100 kg of seed yield about 5-6 kg of material which contains 12-30% bixin.
Chemistry (Annatto) —
Mercadente et al. (1997) note that, of the 500-600 known carotenoids, many have not yet proven to have pro-vitamin-A activity, but many have other useful health-giving properties. They found five apocarotenoids, all new to Bixa and three new to science, and recapitulated others, e.g., bixin (estimated at >80% of carotenoids in the seed coat). Carotenoids are frequently added to foods as colorants, presumed health-giving as well. The following are permitted by the European Union: annatto, beta-apo-8′-carotenal, beta-apo-8′-carotenic ethyl ester, bixin, canthaxan-thin, capsanthin, capsorubin, beta-carotene, carotene mixes, lutein, lycopein, norbixin, paprika extract (Haila et al., 1996). Here are a few of the more notable chemicals found in annatto. For a complete listing of the phytochemicals and their activities, see the CRC phytochemical compendium, and 1993 (DAD) and the USDA database.
Arginine — See also Allium sativum.
Bixin — ADI = 1.25 mg/kg; Antioxidant 30-60 |lg/g; Colorant; Dye.
Histidine — ADI = 15 g/day/orl; Antiatherosclerotic; Antinephrotic; Antioxidant; Antiulcer; Anti-uremic; Essential; Oxidant.
Boswellia sacra Flueck. (Burseraceae) Frankincense, Olibanum Tree
Synonym —
Boswellia carteri Birdw.
Medicinal Uses (Frankincense) — For over a century, the true identity of frankincense has been illusive. Here’s a quote from the Dictionary of the Economic Products of India, cerca 1889. “It is probable that several species yield (Frankincense) of which B. carterii is perhaps one of the most important…. The Arabs, as early as the tenth century, carried Olibanum to India, and the Indian names for it have, through the lapse of time, become almost hopelessly mixed up with those given to the
Indian species…. Many centuries before Christ, the drug was one of the most important articles of trade which the Phoenicians and Egyptians carried on with Arabia (DEP). But all seem to agree that the frankincense or olibanum, whichever species they be, seems to share many aromatic and medicinal principles with pitches and turpentines emanating from the firs and pines and their relatives, some of which were approved by Germany’s Commission E. And over 100 years ago, in India, olibanum was recommended in chronic lung ailments like bronchorrhea and laryngitis, both as an internal concoction, and as an inhalant. And ten centuries ago, Avicennia recommended frankincense for dysentery, fever, tumors, ulcers, and vomiting (GMH). Ointments of olibanum were suggested for boils, carbuncles, and sores. The resin is used to stimulate digestion, to treat mastitis, strengthen the teeth, and mixed into hair products. Soot collected from burning the resin is used as kohl for soothing sore eyes. Other authors suggest it is more cosmetic than medicine. Pregnant Yemenis chew the gum; also chewed for emotional and psychological problems. Arabians often chew it as a masticatory, believed to improve the memory, or add it to coffee. The resin is presumed to be diuretic and laxative. Thieret (1996) adds that, in Graeco-Roman medicine, frankincense was prescribed for abscesses, bruises, chest ache, hemorrhage, hemorrhoids, paralysis, and ulcers. In northern Africa, it is used for back problems, chest congestion, chronic coughs, poliomyelitis, and venereal ailments (Thieret, 1996).
As a natural COX-2 Inhibitor, boswellic-acid may alleviate arthritis, gout, inflammation, and rheumatism, and possibly prevent Alzheimer’s and cancer (Newmark and Schulick, 2000). And I am specifically watching the press for COX-2-Inhibitors and colon cancer. Boik (2001) suggest boswellic-acid, if not frankincense, as a cancer preventive. Seven in vitro studies suggest it inhibits proliferation or induces differentiation in leukemia and CNS-cancer cell lines, usually at levels of 2—40 \\M. Two human studies suggest that frankincense extracts can alleviate brain cancer pathologies, perhaps also reducing brain edema. Alcoholic extracts of Boswellic are antiinflammatory in rats at oral doses of 50 mg/kg, with antiarthritic mitigation (including a reduction in collagen degradation) at 100 mg/kg. The whole extract was more effective than pure boswellic acid, suggesting that a frankincense liqueur might be better than a silver bullet boswellic-acid. Boswellic acid induced apoptosis in leukemia cells (IC50 = 30 \\M), induced differentiation of human leukemia cells at 11-22 |jM, and inhibited proliferation on four human brain cancer cell lines (IC50 = 30 to 40 |M), of 11 lines of meningiomas (IC50 = 2-8 |M), of leukemia cells (IC72 = 4 |M). Boik (and/or my database) lists several mechanisms by which boswellic-acid might prevent cancer: antiangiogenic, antiinflammatory, antileukemic, antimeningiomic, antimetastatic, antiproliferant, apoptotic, COX-2-Inhibitor, cytotoxic, beta-glucuronidase-inhibitor, hyaluronidase-inhibitor (10-70 | M), and topoisomerase-inhibitor. So we have one phytochemical in the Biblical frankincense with more than a dozen different activities that could reduce the incidence of cancer. Boik (2001) calculates tentative human dosages as 340-2400 mg/day (as scaled from animal antitumor studies), 730-3200 mg/day (as scaled from animal antiinflammatory studies), 3600-5400 mg/day used in human anticancer studies, suggesting a target dose of 1800 mg/day boswellic-acid. He suggests that fifteenfold synergies with other phytochemicals may reduce that minimum antitumor dose to 120 mg boswellic-acid/day. “Since the target dose is achievable, synergetic interventions may not be required for boswellic acid to produce an anticancer effect in humans. Still, it may greatly benefit from synergistic interactions and is best tested in combinations” (Boik, 2001).
Indications (Frankincense) —
Abscess (f; HAD); Alzheimer’s (1; COX; FNF); Anxiety (f; BOW); Arthrosis (1; COX; FNF); Asthma (f; HHB); Backache (f; HAD); Bilharzia (f; BIB);
Bleeding (f; HAD); Boil (f; DEP); Bronchosis (f; BIB; DEP); Bruise (f; HAD); Callus (f; BIB);
Cancer (1; COX; FNF; JLH); Cancer, anus (1; BIB; COX); Cancer, breast (1; BIB; COX); Cancer,
eye (1; BIB; COX); Cancer, penis (1; BIB; COX); Cancer, spleen (1; BIB; COX); Cancer, teat (1; BIB; COX); Cancer, testicle (1; BIB; COX); Carbuncle (f; DEP; JLH); Colitis (1; FNF); Corn (f; JLH); Cough (f; HAD); Cramp (1; FNF); Crohn’s Disease (1; FNF); Dermatosis (f; GMH); Dysentery (f; BIB); Dysmenorrhea (f; BOW); Dyspepsia (f; HAD); Edema (1; FNF); Fever (f;
BIB); Gingivosis (f; BOW); Gonorrhea (f; BIB); Hemorrhoid (f; HAD); Infection (f; BOW);
Inflammation (1; FNF); Laryngosis (f; BIB; DEP); Leprosy (f; BIB); Leukemia (1; FNF);
Mastosis (f; JLH); Meningioma (1; FNF); Myelosis (f; HAD); Neurosis (f; BIB; HAD); Ophthalmia (f; JLH); Orchosis (f; JLH); Pain (1; FNF; HHB); Polio (f; HAD); Polyp (f; JLH); Proctosis (f; JLH); Psychosis (f; HAD); Respirosis (f; PH2); Rheumatism (1; BIB; FNF); Sore (f; DEP); Spermatorrhea (f; BIB); Splenosis (f; JLH); Stomachache (f; BIB); Stomatosis (f;
BOW); Swelling (1; BIB; FNF); Syphilis (f; BIB); Tumor (1; FNF); Ulcer (f; HAD); Urogenitosis (f; BIB); Uterosis (f; HHB); UTI (f; BOW); Vaginosis (f; BOW); VD (f; BIB); Vomiting (f; HAD); Water Retention (1; FNF); Wound (f; PH2).
Frankincense for Alzheimer’s:
• ACE-Inhibitor: alpha-terpinene; alpha-terpineol; gamma-terpinene; myrcene
• AChE-Inhibitor: limonene
• Antiacetylcholinesterase: alpha-terpinene; carvone; gamma-terpinene; limonene; p-cymene; terpinen-4-ol
• Antiinflammatory: acetyl-11-keto-beta-boswellic-acid; acetyl-beta-boswellic-acid; alpha-boswellic-acid; alpha-pinene; beta-boswellic-acid; beta-pinene; borneol; caryo-phyllene; caryophyllene-oxide
• Antileukotriene: acetyl-11-keto-beta-boswellic-acid; acetyl-beta-boswellic-acid; alpha-boswellic-acid; beta-boswellic-acid
• Antioxidant: alpha-boswellic-acid; camphene; gamma-terpinene; myrcene
• CNS-Stimulant: borneol; carvone
Frankincense for cancer:
• Antiadenomic: farnesol
• Anticancer: alpha-pinene; alpha-terpineol; aromadendrene; carvone; limonene; linalool; mucilage
• Antiinflammatory: acetyl-11-keto-beta-boswellic-acid; acetyl-beta-boswellic-acid; alpha-boswellic acid; alpha-pinene; beta-boswellic-acid; beta-pinene; borneol; caryo-phyllene; caryophyllene-oxide
• Antileukemic: acetyl-beta-boswellic-acid; farnesol
• Antileukotriene: acetyl-11-keto-beta-boswellic-acid; acetyl-beta-boswellic-acid; alpha-boswellic-acid; beta-boswellic-acid
• Antimelanomic: farnesol
• Antimutagenic: anisaldehyde; limonene; myrcene
• Antioxidant: alpha-boswellic-acid; camphene; gamma-terpinene; myrcene
• Antitumor: alpha-humulene; caryophyllene; caryophyllene-oxide; limonene
• Antiviral: alpha-pinene; dipentene; limonene; linalool; p-cymene
• Apoptotic: farnesol
• Chemopreventive: limonene
• Cytochrome-p450-Inducer: delta-cadinene
• Hepatoprotective: borneol
• Ornithine-Decarboxylase-Inhibitor: limonene
• p450-Inducer: delta-cadinene
Frankincense for rheumatism:
• Analgesic: borneol; myrcene; p-cymene
• Anesthetic: linalool; myrcene
• Antiedemic: acetyl-11-keto-beta-boswellic-acid; beta-boswellic-acid; caryophyllene; caryophyllene-oxide
• Antiinflammatory: acetyl-11-keto-beta-boswellic-acid; acetyl-beta-boswellic-acid; alpha-boswellic-acid; alpha-pinene; beta-boswellic-acid; beta-pinene; borneol; caryo-phyllene; caryophyllene-oxide
• Antirheumatalgic: p-cymene
• Antispasmodic: borneol; caryophyllene; farnesol; limonene; linalool; myrcene
• Myorelaxant: borneol
Other Uses (Frankincense) —
Frankincense came to the Holy Land via the famous spice route across southern Arabia and some of the littoral stations of East Africa, the same caravan highway used also for goods from India and points farther east (Zohary, 1982). Today, the Catholic Church may be a major consumer, often using frankincense in ceremonial incenses. Botanical historian John W. Thieret (1996) seems to agree with Zohary, noting that a main source of frankincense is Boswellia sacra. “Herodotus (born 484 b.c.) wrote that the frankincense trees were guarded by vast numbers of small winged serpents;” he was wrong. Most frankincense comes from Somalia (following bananas and cattle as leading export), where it provides work for some 10,000 Somali families. Herodotus also said that Arabs every year brought to Darius 1000 talents of Frankincense as tribute. Modern Parsis in western India still maintain the same incense ritual (GMH). Some is gathered in Arabia. Most goes to Saudi Arabia, Yemen, and Egypt, the major markets. Early botanist Theophrastus, some three centuries before Christ, said that most frankincense came from Saba (southwestern Arabia, once ruled by the famed Queen Sheba). That ancient country got rich in the incense trade. Circa 2335 b.p., Alexander the Great’s army captured Gaza, plundering its frankincense and sending it to Greece. Tons of incense were buried in the temples of Babylon and Nineveh. And in King Tut’s tomb, 3000 year old balls of frankincense were recovered. One Roman Church formula had 10 oz olibanum (frankincense), 4 oz benzoin, and 1 oz Storax. “In today’s churches, frankincense is an ingredient in the incense that sometimes nearly suffocates the faithful…. Because frankincense and myrrh no longer enjoy the esteem that they did two millennia ago, I wonder what the Wise Men would bring today. Perhaps gold, dates, and oil” (Thieret, 1996). Import statistics are hard to come by. Thieret (1996) suggests total yearly production of myrrh is perhaps 500 tons, frankincense 1000 tons. Recent U.S. imports run 5-20 tons. The United Kingdom imports ca. 30 tons frankincense each year, one perfume manufacturer alone consuming 5 tons annually (Thieret, 1996).
The aromatic resin is chewed or manufactured into an EO used in baked goods, candies, gelatins, ice creams, puddings, and soft drinks (FAC). Flowers and seed of the Indian variety are consumed as foods. Leaves yield an EO. The rosin is used in making balsam substitutes, inks, lacquers, paints, and varnishes. The volatile oils from the resin are suitable for the soap and perfume industry, paints, and varnishes. The resin is, of course, often used as incense. The “kohl” or black used by Egyptian women to stain their eyelids is made of charred frankincense, with or without other odorants added. It is also melted to make a depilatory and made into a paste to perfume the hands. In cold snaps, Egyptians warm their rooms with a brazier on which incense is burned.
For more information on activities, dosages, and contraindications, see the CRC Handtopic of Medicinal Herbs, ed. 2, et al., 2002.
Cultivation (Frankincense) —
Not cultivated, but harvested from the wild. Ghazanfar (1994) notes that, in southern Arabia, luban trees occur in wadis extending to the coast on the lower slopes of the gullies and runoffs. Bown (2001) suggests propagation with semi-ripe cuttings; grow in well-drained to dry soils in full sun, with light pruning in spring. The gum exuding from cuts is the major medicinal incense, being burned to give a perfumed smoke, used to improve the aroma of clothing, hair, and residences. Of the Indian Olibanum, WO2 reports it demands light, tolerates fire, and makes gregarious open forests, coppicing readily and producing root suckers as well. It regenerates nicely from seed and root-suckers, and cuttings strike well even during drought. This being the only non-coniferous source of “turpentine” in India, it can be tapped so as not to injure the tree; trees yield 0.9-2.5 kg gum per tree. Healthy trees, girth 90 cm or more (obviously much bigger than the true desert frankincenses), are tapped by shaving off a thin band of bark ca. 20 cm broad, 30 cm high, about 15 cm above the soil line. The cut is made about half the thickness of the bark. In India, tapping begins in November and is stopped before the monsoon. Bown (2001) says gum can be collected all year, though the best is that from the driest hottest months in the driest hottest areas. For more details, see WO2.
Chemistry (Frankincense) —
Here are a few of the more notable chemicals found in frankincense. For a complete listing of the phytochemicals and their activities, see the CRC phytochemical compendium, and 1993 (DAD) and the USDA database — Analgesic 20-55 mg/kg ipr rat; Antiallergic; Antiarthritic 100 mg/kg orl rat; Antiasthmatic; Anticomplement IC100 = 0.1 | M; Antiedemic; Antieicosanoid; Antihyaluronidase; Antiinflammatory 50 mg/kg orl rat, IC100 = 0.1 |M; Antileukemic 11-30 \xM, IC69 = 25 mg/kg ipr mus, IC82 = 50 mg/kg ipr mus; Antimeningiomic IC50 = 11-22 |jM; Antioxidant; Antiproliferant — 40 |M, IC69 = 25 mg/kg ipr mus, IC82 = 50 mg/kg ipr mus; Antitumor (Brain) IC50 = 30-40 |M; AntiVEGF; Apoptotic 30-40 |M; COX-2-Inhibitor; Differentiator 11-22 \\M; Elastase-Inhib-itor IC50 = 15 |jM; Beta-Glucuronidase-Inhibitor 100 mg/kg; 5-HETE-Inhibitor; 5-Lipoxygenase-Inhibitor IC50 = 1.5-33 | M; Sedative 20-55 mg/kg ipr rat; Topoisomerase-Inhibitor.
alpha-Boswellic-Acid — Antiallergic; Antiarthritic; Antiasthmatic; AntiCrohn’s; Anticolitic; Anti-inflammatory; Antileukotriene; COX-2-Inhibitor; 5-Lipoxygenase-Inhibitor.
Beta-Boswellic-Acid — Antiallergic; Antiarthritic; Antiasthmatic; AntiCrohns; Anticolitic; Anti-edemic 50-200 mg/kg; Antiinflammatory 5 |jM; Antileukotriene 5 |jM; 5-Lipoxygenase-Inhibitor 5 |M.
