INTRODUCTION: THE EMERGENCE OF THE VIRTUAL SCHOOL
Virtual schools are an alternative to the “bricks-and-mortar” schools that have been synonymous with school education for hundreds of years. Traditionally, students have attended a school building for their education where they have been in the physical presence of a teacher. There are, of course, exceptions to this understanding of education, in which students have been involved in a form of distance education or distance learning by correspondence, or have used technologies such as radio and television. These developments have been particularly useful for students living in isolated communities, or those unable to attend a conventional school. Virtual schools are also a form of distance education or virtual instruction. Typically, they use online computers, and students are able to complete their schoolwork when it is convenient for them, without having to meet with their teacher and other students in a school building.
The term “virtual school” is generic, as a number of variations can be identified. Some schools use synchronous communication by having lessons available on an online computer in a conventional school from a remote location at an agreed time, such as the Virtual Schooling Service in Queensland, Australia (VSS 2006a). The form of educational technology used by the Virtual Schooling Service includes asynchronous communication for Web-based resources to “enable students to access subject content and the materials of individual lessons flexibly, either from home or school, in their own time.” (Prendergast, Kapitzke, Land, Luke and Bahr, 2002, p. 19). This approach allows students to participate in lessons at school. Computer-based resources are supplemented by the use of phones:
As a virtual school student you participate in online lessons with your teacher and other students. These lessons will allow you to talk with the teacher and other students by phone while using the computer to share information and ideas. (VSS 2006b)
Some virtual schools insist that their students are involved in face-to-face activities, while others provide an “Out-of-School Model” (Schnitz and Young, 1999), where computer-mediated interactions at a distance predominate. In Florida High School, “there is no Florida High School building and students and teachers can be anywhere in the world” (Florida High School Evaluation, 2000, p. 12). It is also possible to find mixed-mode examples, where some subjects are offered in virtual mode, but students are asked to visit the school on a regular basis to monitor their progress or to participate in face-to-face subjects or activities such as sport, drama, art, the laboratory component of science, and social activities.
BACKGROUND: THE GROWTH OF VIRTUAL SCHOOLS
Russell (2004) argues that the principal factors that account for the growth of virtual schools include globalization, technological change, availability of IT technology, economic rationalism, the model provided by higher education, perceptions about traditional schools, and the vested interest of those involved in them.
Globalization refers to a process whereby international businesses are able to use online technology to bypass geographic boundaries. The same concept can be applied to educational provision, and it is now possible for curriculum to be delivered remotely across state and national borders. Educational administrators can purchase online units of work for their school, and parents in developed countries can sometimes choose between a traditional school and its virtual counterpart.
The increased technological capacity of school systems is paralleled by the potential to deliver motivating and interactive curricula online. The increased adoption of broadband is likely to reduce the loading time of web pages and other information, and enable developments such as full-motion video clips, animations, desktop video conferencing, and online music. The generation that has grown up with a range of digital technologies is likely to be less tolerant of text, or pedagogies that they regard as uninteresting.
Economic rationalism is related to the deregulation and commercialization of goods and services. Rutherford (1993) suggests that in education, the collective or government provision of goods and services is a disincentive to private provision. It is not surprising that private schools and businesses have shown interest in virtual schools. For Perelman (1992), face-to-face schools are seen as inefficient remnants of an earlier industrial that ought to be replaced with technology.
Higher education also provides a modeling effect for parents. As increasing numbers of parents complete an online tertiary course, there is a corresponding growth in the conceptual understanding that virtual schooling may also be a real alternative. The online courses provided by universities in recent years have proliferated (Russell and Russell 2001), and their availability in industrialized countries is now quite common.
Parents can also be attracted to virtual schools for their children because they may see existing schools as unsatisfactory. In some areas, schools may be seen as unsafe, because of issues such as violence, bullying, or drugs. Schools have also been criticized for not meeting student needs, providing inadequate skills for employment, or not preparing students adequately for entrance examinations and tests. In some cases, parents and students have to contend with poorly resourced schools and teacher shortages. For some parents, the range of subjects offered may seem limited, or there can be disagreement with teaching methods and philosophy. Factors such as these can lead parents to consider alternatives such as virtual schools for their children.
MAIN FOCUS: VIRTUAL SCHOOLS, PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS
Virtual schools problems often have their counterparts in traditional schools. Moreover, as with more conventional schools, there has been some recognition of these problems and attempts to solve them. These problems include authenticity, interactivity, socialization, experiential learning, responsibility and accountability, teacher training, certification, class sizes, accreditation, student suitability, and equity.
Authenticity is the problem of determining whether a student has completed original submitted work. Problems can occur if students plagiarize from the Internet or elsewhere, and when others collude in the completion of the work. Virtual schools may assign students a secure password to use over the Internet, but this procedure would not preclude students from giving their passwords to a parent or tutor who completed the work on their behalf. A possible solution that may have to be considered is for independent testing of students to confirm that they have the understanding, knowledge, and skills suggested by their submitted work. It may also be necessary for online teachers to revise their tasks regularly, or to use commercial plagiarism detection software.
An interactive relationship in virtual schools involves the online environment, the teacher, and the student. Students would typically access materials on the World Wide Web, respond to them, and send completed work electronically to their teacher. The preferred way for students to become involved in online learning is for an active engagement involving a response. If a student is directed to a static Web page containing a teacher’s lecture notes, learning may be less effective, unless other teaching methods are used to supplement it. The solution to this problem will be found in both the increased capability of students’ online computers to operate in a rich multimedia environment, and the recognition by course designers that virtual schools should take advantage of advances in learning theory and technological capability. In the USA, the National Education Association’s Guide to Online High School Courses (NEA, 2006) has commented on the need for online course to reflect current research on learning theory and recognise the opportunities provided by online learning environments (p.15).
Socialization continues to be a problem with some virtual schools because there is an expectation in conventional schooling that students will learn how to work cooperatively with others, and will internalize those norms and values required by society. Moll (1998) is concerned with disruption to the tradition of public education as the primary vehicle for the transference of national narratives, and humanistic and democratic values. Clearly, socialization will still occur if students use online learning supplemented by some contact with teachers, and opportunities for organized sport. Some virtual schools routinely insist on organized face-to-face extra-curricular activities or required group classes and problems to reduce these problems. For some senior high school students, the problem is less apparent because they may be already in employment, and using the virtual school to catch up on missed subjects for college entry. In other cases, students enroll in conventional schools, but access virtual schools for missing subjects during their time at their usual school. (FLVS, 2002). Virtual schools have also reacted to this potential problem by introducing procedures such as synchronous chat and group lessons (Johnson, 2004).
There are beliefs that virtual schools will exacerbate existing perceptions that the Internet is an isolating technology, and involvement in it will be reflected in a loss of community. However, research in this area has either not been focused on school-aged students and virtual schools, or is contradictory. Research by Kraut, Patterson, Lundmark, Kiesler, Mukopadhyay, and Scherlis, (1998) originally suggested that Internet use could be associated with declines in participants’ communication with family members in the household, declines in the size of their social circle, and increases in depression and loneliness. However, more recent research (Kraut, Kiesler, Boneva, Cummings, Helgeson and Crawford, 2002) found that negative effects had largely dissipated.
Experiential teaching activities in conventional schools usually involve some form of hands-on activity or physical interaction with others. Typically, a teacher will provide a demonstration, explanation, or modeling of what is to be learned, and activities that follow provide an opportunity for the correction of errors. While virtual schools commonly offer subjects such as mathematics and social studies, the study of physical education, drama, art, and the laboratory component of science is more problematic. Sometimes the problem does not arise because students will enroll only for subjects that they have missed or are needed for credit towards a qualification. One solution to these problems is for students to complete activities required by the virtual school and return evidence such as photos or videos of the completed work to their teachers. At the Fraser Valley Distance Education School (2006), students are invited to participate in a science fair by sending in digital pictures of their project to the supervising teacher.
Changing notions of responsibility, accountability, and student discipline are also likely to arise in virtual school environments. In a traditional school, teachers accept responsibility for the students in their charge, including the prevention of physical injury, and accountability for using appropriate teaching techniques. When there is a spatial and temporal distance between teacher and student, teachers are unable to exercise some of their accustomed responsibilities. While there is still a requirement to act ethically, and to ensure that appropriate teaching materials and methods are used, much of the responsibility shifts to parents, students, and to the suppliers of the online materials (Russell, 2002). Some virtual schools, such as Louisiana Virtual School (2006) ask students and parents to sign an honesty policy in an effort to maintain the authenticity of students’ work.
Teacher training is also emerging as an area of concern. Virtual teachers will find that some new skills are required, while others are less important. Class management skills in a face-to-face environment will differ from their online equivalent, as will many of the teaching practices. There will be an ongoing need to use not only technological skills, but to apply these skills to the appropriate educational context. However, it is unlikely that many teachers’ colleges and other providers of trained teachers have modified their courses to reflect these changes. Some groups do offer professional development for teachers in virtual schools. These include EDLO (2006), and VHS (2006). The California Virtual School Report (2002) provided evidence of the use of online modules for teachers at Durham Virtual High School, in Canada, a 15-week teacher-training program in Fairfax County School District, and professional development options at Virtual High School.
Parents would normally expect that the virtual teacher working with their child would be a competent online teacher and certified or registered with the corresponding school system. Where a student is working from home, and the principal contact with the teacher is by email, the anonymity of the communication mode could conceivably cover the use of unqualified teachers. The necessity for demonstrating that a high quality educational experience is being supplied is however likely to reduce this possibility. Florida Virtual High School only uses certified classroom teachers (Schnitz and Young 1999, p. 4; FLVS 2006a ). As the online environment becomes more competitive, it is likely that virtual schools will provide evidence of their teachers’ certification.
With conventional schools, the issue of class sizes is a perennial problem. The diversity of virtual schools means that it is not easy to determine corresponding workloads. The evaluation of Virtual High School (Kozma, Zucker, Espinoza, McGee, Yarnell, Zalles and Lewis, 2000) revealed that some of the teachers involved in the case study had to complete their VHS work at home in addition to their normal teaching load during the day. Where teachers are asked to take responsibility for large groups of students, the time available for individual attention is likely to be reduced, and the quality ofthe educational service provided may be less satisfactory. Some virtual schools have shown that they aware of this problem by limiting the number of students that online teachers can take.
Accreditation of courses across geographic regions will also become an increasing problem. Varying standards can mean that a course in one area is not recognized in another. Students will increasingly be able to choose programs across state and even national borders, and complete their schoolwork by sitting at home with their computer. Cavanaugh (2004) has discussed accreditation standards for virtual schools in the USA and has concluded that virtual schools must continue to develop and maintain standards, and communicate these standards to the public.
An important item relating to the quality of a student’s educational experience in a virtual school is the recognition that not all students are suited to online learning. Some virtual schools already try to determine whether the prospective student is suited to online learning by using questionnaires. The Florida Virtual School (2006b), and the Electronic Classroom of Tomorrow (ECOT 2006), offer online questionnaires for students. Typically, these questionnaires ask students about their independent learning skills, motivation, time management abilities, and comfort with technology.
If virtual schools are perceived to be advantageous for those enrolled in them, there are also concerns when the access to them is seen as inequitable. Bikson and Paris (1999) have found that there were “highly significant differences in household computer access based on income” (p. 9), in the USA. While there may be changes to patterns of students’ computer access over time, it is reasonable to assume that households with children will have less access to computers to use in a virtual school if they are part of a disadvantaged group. Unless there is careful planning, the use of technology-mediated education is likely, in the short term, to entrench further those inequalities that exist in society.
FUTURE TRENDS
Three broad trends can be identified in the growth of virtual schools. These are the continued expansion in the number of virtual schools, the trend from virtual high schools to virtual K-12 schools, and the different approach taken to virtual schools in Europe. Research by Clark (2000, p.3) indicates that more virtual schools began their operations in the USA during the period 2000 or 2001 (43%) than in the previous four years combined. 51% of virtual schools surveyed offered junior high and middle school courses as well as high school courses, and about one in four schools currently offered courses across the whole K-12 spectrum (Clark, 2000, p. 4). In Canada, there is also evidence of growing demand for virtual schools. The two-year cumulative growth rate for Alberta virtual schools was 125% (SAEE, 2000).
Collectively, the implication of these trends is that there will be increased attention devoted to those problems that arise from virtual schooling across the K-12 range. When virtual schools made their first appearance, it would have been possible for some educators to dismiss them because they were experimental, or ignore their existence because they catered only for a niche market of high school students. In some cases, this suggestion may still be valid, but support for virtual schooling is increasing rather decreasing, and the nature of what is offered is becoming more comprehensive.
In Europe, the pattern of virtual school development has differed from that of North America. Europeans have been less interested in embracing the out-of-school model and have instead adopted models that either provide online services to schools or make special provision for disadvantaged youth. One of the key providers is European Schoolnet, an international association of ministries of education from Europe and elsewhere. European Schoolnet provides a portal for members that includes a number of innovative projects for schools, in addition to policy information and online services. The European Schoolnet (EUN) describe their operations as follows:
The European Schoolnet is a unique international partnership of 26 Ministries of Education developing learning for schools, teachers and pupils across Europe and beyond. We provide insight into the use of ICT (information and communications technology) in Europe for policy-makers and education professionals. This goal is achieved through communication and information exchange at all levels of school education using innovative technologies, and by acting as a gateway to national and regional school networks (European Schoolnet, 2005).
Several virtual schools (or virtual schooling services) in the UK are specifically designed to assist disadvantaged school-age students. Notschool.net (2005) in the UK is an online research project that aims to re-engage school-age students into learning who have previously been out of more traditional educational systems. The project aims to establish a virtual community and develop students’ self-esteem using new technology and community support. Similarly, the Liverpool Virtual School and the Old Library Centre Virtual School (2006) at West Norwood, Lambeth, in the UK are online schools that provide services to students from deprived areas or provide an education to students who do not have a mainstream school place.
Additional virtual schools or virtual school services available in Europe include the AustriaVirtual School (2005). This is a subject-oriented resource providing online educational information for Austrian students and teachers. The school works in close association with European School Network. Kennisnet (2005) provides a virtual schooling service in the Netherlands, while the Finland Virtual School (2005) is based on local, regional, and national projects. Elsewhere, the OrtAviv Virtual School in Israel offers a program of nearly 40 online courses and operates in 36 schools.
CONCLUSION
Virtual schools continue the tradition whereby students learn at a distance from their teachers. The availability of online courses through the Internet has simultaneously reduced the emphasis given to older forms of distance education, while increasing the opportunities for students to explore alternatives to traditional school education. It is likely that there will be an increase in the number of virtual schools, and that they will continue to attract students. The expected increase in the number and type of virtual schools is likely to provide challenges, but there will also be exciting possibilities.
KEY TERMS
Bricks-and-mortar Schools: Conventional schools used for face-to-face classes.
Distance Education: A generic term referring to education where teachers and students are geographically separate. Modes employed include print and non-print technologies.
Experiential Learning: Learning based on direct and unmediated instruction, or on physical interaction with people and materials.
Globalization: The bypassing of traditional geographic borders using information technology to enable global orientation of business and remote curriculum delivery.
Interactivity: The relationship between the learner and the educational environment.
Socialization: The process by which students internalize the norms and values necessary for living in a civilized community.
Virtual School: A form of schooling that uses online computers for part or all of a student’s education
