Svabhava
("own-being")
Svabhava is a Sanskrit term found in Hindu literature as well as early Buddhism. it can be translated as "innate nature" or "own-being." It indicates the principle of self-becoming, the essential character of any entity. It assumes that a phenomenon can exist without reference to a conditioning context; a thing simply "is." In other words, it has a permanent nature. Buddhism refutes this idea, holding that all phenomena are codependent with all other phenomena. Nagarjuna, the great Mahayana Buddhism philosopher, concluded that nothing in the universe has svabhava. in fact, the universe is characterized by sunyata, emptiness. Sunyata assumes the opposite of svabhava, asvabhava.
Svabhava was a key issue of debate among the early schools of Buddhism, in india. They all generally held that every dharma, or constituent of reality, had its own nature.
Swastika
Contemporary Western travelers to Asia are often surprised to find the swastika used as a decorative symbol on religious buildings and various religious objects. However, swastika is a Sanskrit word meaning "well-being." In ancient Hindu lore it was often associated with the serpent, a symbol of the creative life from the Supreme Spirit. The swastika symbolized the life force being set in motion to start up the various cyclic workings of nature. Its use by the Nazis and association with the Holocaust have identified the symbol with the worst kind of evil that humanity can perpetrate, hence the startled expressions that often follow initial encounters with the swastika in the non-Western world.
Buddhists borrowed the swastika from the Hindus and as Buddhism spread, especially northward into China (and from there to Japan and Korea), the swastika spread also. It is generally oriented horizontally but may appear with the arms pointing in either direction. It was quite often placed over the heart on statues of the Buddha and could be found stamped on the breasts of departed initiates. It was freely used to decorate temples and appeared on amulets. One popular representation of the Buddha was the Sri-Pada, or holy footprint (also a sacred mountain in Sri Lanka). Such images have a swastika on each of the toes.
In China, the swastika is placed on food packaging to identify vegetarian products. The symbol is sometimes sewn into the clothing of children as a protective amulet. In Korea, besides decorating the houses of fortune tellers and temples, swastikas also appear on maps, where they are used to mark the locations of temples (similarly, Western maps often use a box with a cross to identify the location of churches). The faithful also wear swastikas in necklaces in order to identify themselves as Buddhists. Early in the 20th century, the Theosophical Society (based in South India) used a swastika as part of its symbol. At least one of the cofounders, Henry Steel Olcott, identified himself as a Buddhist.
Rubbing of a stone carving showing the Buddha’s feet, with symbols showing different elements of his teachings; in the Da Yan pagoda, Xi’an, western China
Contemporary Buddhists have become aware of the Nazi swastika and the negative emotions that it arouses. Many have abandoned it, though no effort has been made to erase it from temples and other pre-Nazi structures. In recent decades, Asian artists, noting that the Nazi swastika was right facing, almost always draw any swastikas designed for a Buddhist context facing left.
Tachikawa
Tachikawa was a Japanese Buddhist sect founded at the end of the 11th century by Nin-kan (10571123), a Shingon priest. The group was distinctive in that, drawing on various indian Tantric texts, Nin-kan advocated a form of Tantra that included the practice of sexual intercourse. All of Vajrayana Buddhism has teachings that include a significant amount of sexual symbolism, but most who practice tantrism embody that symbolism in a spectrum of rituals that do not themselves include any sexual contact.
Early in the 12th century, the Japanese government outlawed the movement and its growth was quickly stunted. However, it appears to have survived as an underground movement into the 17th century. Rumors have persisted that some of the writings representative of the group have survived but are locked away and have not been made available to modern researchers.
T’aego Pou
(1301-1382) Korean Son (Zen) teacher
T’aego Pou, to whom most practitioners of Korean Son Buddhism trace their lineage, was born in Kwangju, in southern Korea. He was ordained as a monk at the age of 13 and had his first awakening six years later. He was 37 when he attained his deeper enlightenment. Several years later he settled at Mt. Samgak (near present-day Seoul) at Chungheungsa temple. He built Sosolam Hermitage east of the temple and attracted many students. Here he completed his first major writing, the Gailpyeon. over the course of his life, he authored many poems.
T’aego’s life was divided by a visit to China for two years (1346-48) during which he met a number of Chan Buddhism leaders, among them Shi Wu Jingkong (1270-1352), the patriarch in the Linji Chan school. Shi Wu certified T’aego’s awakening and in 1348 sent him back to Korea to spread the Linji (in Korea, Imje) teachings. T’aego settled back at Sosolam, prepared to remain there the rest of his life. However, Korea had entered a tumultuous period. The Chinese Yuan dynasty (1271-1368) that ruled Korea at the time was in its last years, and in 1351, Kongmon (1351-74) asserted Korea’s independence. In 1352 he invited T’aego to his court. T’aego assumed the role of teacher to the king and used his position to gain the king’s backing for his goal of uniting the various Son groups into a single organization. Because of his study and authorization from China, his popularity was high. In 1356, the king appointed him the teacher of the nation and backed his unification plan.
T’aego worked for a decade on unifying the Korean Son centers and then retired from public life. When he died in 1382, he was honored with the title Son Master of Perfect Realization. His relics now lie in a granite stupa on Mt. Samgak.
Taijiquan (Tai Chi Chuan)
Taijiquan is a martial arts form developed in central China in the late 18th and mid-19th centuries. Although Taijiquan is only one of the many Chinese martial arts traditions, today it continues to be practiced by many and is the best known worldwide. As with most martial arts there is a strong element of inner cultivation in Taijiquan. Over the course of its development Taijiquan also became a magnet for popular religious and spiritual ideas.
Chinese martial arts schools can be generally classified as either outer styles (waijia) or inner styles (neijia). Shaolinquan, the boxing style said to have originated at the Shaolin Temple in Henan, central China, is an example of outer-directed style. And Aijiquan, Baguaquan (eight trigram boxing), and Xingyiquan are inner styles,also known collectively as wudang pai (Wudang style), after the Wudang Mountains in Hubei, central China. In general the outer styles rely on force and technique, while the inner styles focus on inner phenomena such as jin (internal force) and qi (spiritual energy). All traditions are transmitted from individual teachers to students, usually forming a master-disciple lineage. And over time they add such elements as stories, theories, and written records.
THE THREE LINEAGES AND THE ORIGINS OF TAIJIQUAN
Stories of the origin of Taijiquan center on three families active in northern China in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the heyday of the Qing dynasty (1644-1911). One family, the Chens, lived in the Chen family village (Chenjiagou) in Henan Province and had developed their own boxing style over generations. Much of their style is in fact related to a book written by a Ming dynasty (1368-1644) general and hero in the fight against coastal pirates, Qi Jiguang (1528-88). Qi wrote a military classic, the Jixiao xinshu (New book of effective techniques), in which he devoted one chapter to martial arts. This chapter, called the "Quanjing" (Classic of boxing), lists 16 styles and 32 boxing postures.
The Chen style had never been taught to people outside the Chen clan, however. Eventually a member of the Yang family from Yongnian County, Hebei Province, Yang Luchan (1799-1872), was allowed to become the first outsider taught the Chen boxing style. The Chen style of Taijiquan was finally described in writing in the book Chen-shi taijiquan tujie (Chen family Taijiquan illustrated), written by Chen Xin (1849-1929) and published in the 1930s.
After staying in Chenjiagou for 30 years Yang Luchan returned to his hometown of Yongnian and taught boxing. At this point it was called simply ruanquan (soft boxing) or mianquan (cotton boxing)—the name Taijiquan had not yet been developed. Yang taught the youngest member of the local gentry family in Yongnian, one Wu Yuxiang (1812-80). The Wu family was the local aristocracy. Through the Wu connections Yang was introduced to people in other cities. For instance, he taught members of the Manchu Imperial Guards stationed in Beijing. Yang eventually moved to Beijing and continued to teach, as did his children and grandchildren. They trained generations of taiji masters, some of whom lived into the 1990s. The Yang family also produced a large amount of literature concerning Taijiquan. This material was published in two books by Yang Chengfu (1883-1936), a grandson of Yang Luchan, in the 1930s.
Meanwhile, Yang Luchan’s student Wu Yuxiang developed the boxing style in a different direction. Wu developed his own style called the Wu/Hao style, and passed it to his nephew, Li Yiyu (1832-92). Although this school did not spread widely, both Wu and his nephew Li wrote several important works on both the Wu and Yang styles of boxing.
In looking at the development of Taijiquan tradition so far, the pattern is of close personal connections between a handful of families in the same general area, and of later development, through teaching and publishing, in order to reach a wider audience. Already there is a complex net involving three family lineages, each promoting similar versions of a boxing style.
Sometime in the late 1880s the label taiji was used to describe the style of boxing. This title was probably used by the Wu/Li branch of Taijiquan. The use of taiji, "the supreme ultimate," a term used in the Yijing (Book of Changes), was a clear association with a key concept from Daoism.
THE ASSOCIATION WITH ZHANG SANFENG
Because of their publishing efforts we have written accounts of these three families. However, over time additional legendary accounts were added to the Taijiquan tradition. This is a common phenomenon in Chinese culture: the involvement of legendary figures bestows a kind of popular legitimacy to a practice, and more people become more disposed to take it up.
Beginning in the 1900s the Daoist Zhang Sanfeng was said to be the founder of Yang style boxing. Zhang was a late Song (960-1279) or early Ming (1368-1644) figure associated with the Wudang Mountains in northern Henan. The Wudang Mountains are near the Chen family village of Chenjiagou, and, as noted earlier, there is a strong connection between the Wudang Mountains and martial arts in general. Zhang’s name had already been associated with inner style boxing as early as 1669. in a memorial he was said to have founded the inner School of boxing during the Song dynasty after being visited by the God of War before a battle with bandits.
By the 1930s a new legend had been formulated about how Zhang Sanfeng developed Taiji-quan. While chanting one day in his room he was said to have witnessed a battle between a snake and a bird. He was impressed with the way the snake evaded capture by constantly attacking and withdrawing. He then realized the principle of "soft overcoming hard," an expression frequently used in Taijiquan. And as in the development of Shaolinquan by Bodhidharma, the famous founder of Chan (Zen) Buddhism, Zhang Sanfeng developed Taijiquan in order to help monks stimulate their qi, which had become stagnant.
The link between Taijiquan and Zhang Sanfeng is historically suspect. None of the Chen family writings or documents in Chenjiagou mention Zhang Sanfeng. However, the link is ideologically important, because it allows Taijiquan practitioners to claim that Taijiquan is Daoist. Zhang is therefore honored in many Taijiquan halls and schools.
MODERN TAIJIQUAN
Beginning in the Republican period of Chinese history (1911-49) the martial arts took on a more popular, public role than they had had in the past. We saw how various traditions had been essentially passed from master to disciple. They were of particular interest to soldiers as well as, to some extent, religious practitioners. By the Republican period access was broadened, allowing many people to learn these techniques. Martial arts associations such as the Beijing Physical Education Research Association were established. Teachers in the Yang tradition were active in this particular organization. And beginning in 1921 teachers began to publish popular guides to Taijiquan.
In the communist period, which began in 1949, Taijiquan was at first seen as one of the many feudal superstitions that should be eliminated to make way for the enlightened, socialist stage of Chinese history. Yet martial arts were popular and practiced throughout society. So instead of stamping out the practices altogether, the government decided to control and streamline practice. Taijiquan was made into a health exercise and a sport. Competitions were encouraged. Performances were staged for visitors. The health aspect, something that as we have seen has always been part of Taijiquan’s attraction, became its sole purpose, to the detriment of its spiritual and martial sides. And as a result the Chen, Yang, and Wu lineages were phased out.
Lineages survived outside China, however, in places such as Taiwan and Hong Kong. And such masters as Zheng Manqing taught Taijiquan to a new generation of curious Westerners as well as Chinese. Today the state’s control of Taijiquan is relatively lax, and individual masters are once again allowed to practice. However, any association with the qigong field in general is avoided; Taijiquan in China is perceived simply as a non-controversial, traditional series of exercises.
THE TAIJIQUAN CLASSICS
From the early 1900s a collection of written works involving Taijiquan was loosely called the Taijiquan jing (Taijiquan classics). These works include poems, essays, and instruction manuals. There are today two overlapping versions. The Wu/Li version, collected and published by followers of Wu Yuxiang and Li Yiyu, mentioned earlier, is the older. This version dates as far back as 1881 and contains 12 works. Since the Wu/Li lineage had few students, none of the classics were printed; they were all circulated in hand-copied versions.
The Yang version of the classics overlaps with the Wu/Li version completely in three texts and partially in another four. It was first published by the Beijing Physical Education Research Institute in 1912. That printing contained six texts. A later printing by Chen Weiming in 1925 listed five texts in the Classics. This list is taken as definitive today. The following works are included:
1. Taijiquan lun (The taijiquan treatise), attributed to Zhang Sanfeng
2. Taijiquan jing (The taijiquan classic), attributed to Wang Zongyue
3. Shisanshi ge (The thirteen postures song)
4. Shisan shi xinggong xinjue (Exposition of insights into the workings of the thirteen postures)
5. Dashou ge (Playing hands song)
Since the Yang version of the texts occurred much later than the Wu/Li version and is simplified, many scholars think the Yang version derived from the Wu/Li version.
TAIJIQUAN THEORY AND PRACTICE
The Taijiquan Classics are filled with references to such Daoist concepts as qi (energy), yin-yang, and the five phases. However, Taijiquan practice tends to focus on these additional principles:
Softness (rou): overcome hardness with softness; remain stable while the opponent becomes decentered.
Relaxation (song): achieve a state of flexible relaxation in order to allow the qi to flow.
Emptiness/fullness: know weight distribution in the feet, and fullness in the hands and throughout the body.
Following/sticking/listening: stay with the opponent; do not attempt to set the agenda; "give up the self and listen to others."
Internal force (jin): like a bent sapling, jin allows you to remain rooted.
Rooting (gen): the feet are rooted from the soles.
Quietness (jing): be quiet like a mountain.
Qi (energy): attain a unified qi, flowing freely throughout the body.
Yao (waist): all movements originate here.
A visit to public parks in any Chinese city will reveal many people practicing Taijiquan, as well as other exercise techniques. The 13 postures are taught step by step, so that a student will eventually be able to perform all the motions in a flowing sequence. During practice the student focuses on inner energy (qi) as well as posture and muscular movement.
Such practices form a vital part of Chinese popular culture. Taijiquan, although only several hundred years old, reflects an innate desire for a bodily practice that encapsulates ancient philosophical understandings.
