African Methodist Episcopal Church To Agriculture (New Jersey)

African Methodist Episcopal Church. The nation’s oldest black religious denomination, the African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church was founded in 1816 in Philadelphia by Richard Allen (1760-1831), its first bishop. Born a slave in Philadelphia, Allen was raised in Dover, Delaware, where his family had been sold to another slave owner. By his early twenties, with the permission of his owner, he had taught himself to read and write and had become a preacher in the Methodist Society. Returning to Philadelphia after purchasing his freedom, he served as a wagon driver in the American Revolution, and continued to preach. After the war he became an itinerant preacher; South Jersey was included in his travels. He returned in 1786 to Philadelphia, where, in 1787, responding to the discriminatory racial practices of white Methodists, he helped form the Free African Society, and in 1794 established the Bethel Church, the first congregation in what would become the AME Church.

Because of its proximity to Philadelphia and Allen’s early preaching efforts in South Jersey, some of the earliest AME churches are found in New Jersey. For example, the Mount Pisgah congregation of Salem, generally considered New Jersey’s oldest black church (established around 1800), was one of five congregations present at the 1816 founding conference of the AME Church in Philadelphia.

African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church. Organized in 1821 by its first bishop, James Varick (1750-1827), the African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Zion Church is the nation’s second oldest and second largest black Methodist denomination. Varick, whose father was born and raised in Hackensack, established the Zion Church in 1796 in his native New York City in protest against the segregated seating provided for black people in the Methodist Episcopal Church, the denomination that had licensed him to preach.

New York City’s closeness to New Jersey enabled the AME Zion Church to spread quickly to New Jersey. One of the denomination’s oldest churches, and perhaps the oldest black congregation in Newark, is the Clinton Memorial AME Zion Church, established in 1822. Paul Robeson, one of New Jersey’s most illustrious natives, provides another important New Jersey connection with the AME Zion Church. Robeson’s father, following his pastorate at Princeton’s Witherspoon Street Presbyterian Church, joined the AME Zion denomination and served as the pastor of two of its New Jersey congregations: Westfield’s Saint Luke’s AME Zion Church and Somerville’s Saint Thomas AME Zion Church. The life of New Jerseyan Florence Spearing Randolph illustrates the opportunities for women in the AME Zion Church. Ordained a deacon and an elder in 1901 and 1903, respectively, she was one of the first black women to receive such authority. One of the first black women pastors as well, she served Summit’s Wallace Chapel AME Zion Church from 1925 to 1946.

Africans. In the 1960s, following the liberation of many former European colonies, Africans started emigrating in large numbers to the United States, seeking political freedom, economic opportunity, and better education. Many of these immigrants settled in New Jersey, owing to the state’s close proximity to New York City and Philadelphia.

The U.S. Bureau of the Census reported that in i960,1,810 Africans lived in metropolitan areas of the state, representing 0.9 percent of all inhabitants who were born overseas or born in the United States of foreign or mixed parentage. These African immigrants originated in North Africa, the Union of South Africa (now South Africa), and other parts of the continent. By i990 there were 25,222 Africans residing in New Jersey, and by 2000 the number had reached 59,917, a jump of over i37 percent.

The number of African immigrants in New Jersey continues to grow. They arrive from Morocco, Egypt, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea, Ghana, Ethiopia, and Ivory Coast. In addition to their native African languages, they speak English, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Arabic. Their religious affiliations include Islam, Christianity (Catholic, Presbyterian, Methodist, Jehovah’s Witness), and Judaism (a small number from Ethiopia). Some are employed as unskilled laborers, fabricators, operators, and service workers; others are skilled medical doctors, lawyers, university professors, teachers, writers, engineers, artists, and administrators and managers. When they settle in New Jersey, most African immigrants tend to choose urban areas (Newark, Jersey City, Trenton, and Atlantic City), where they can more easily obtain employment and housing.

Afro-American Historical and Cultural Society Museum. in 1977, Thomas Taylor, president of the Jersey City Branch of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), initiated the idea of having an exhibit on Afro-American history and culture for Black History Month. Theodore Brunson, with Nora Fant and Virginia Dunnaway, formed the Historical and Cultural Committee to fulfill that mission with the assistance of the NAACP. In i984, the committee found permanent space for a museum as a separate nonprofit organization housed on the second floor in the Greenville Branch of the Jersey City Free Public Library. The museum has galleries for lectures, special exhibits, and a permanent collection of material culture of New Jersey’s African Americans, as well as African artifacts. The collection includes memorabilia of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters (the nation’s first African American labor union) and the civil rights movement, documents regarding the slave trade and the Underground Railroad, and other items reflecting the contributions of African Americans to the state’s history.

Agriculture. Native Americans (the Lenape) had been growing domesticated plants in New Jersey for several hundred years before the arrival of European settlers. Corn, beans, and squash were their most important crops. Corn, because of its high yields, was especially favored by the early colonists. They initially adopted Native American agricultural techniques, such as growing the corn in hills and clearing land for crops by slashing the bark of trees to kill them (rather than cutting them down), allowing sunlight to penetrate to the tilled earth.

The first recorded colonial farmer was Aert Van Putten, who in 1641 leased land at what is now Hoboken. Thus began an influx of exotic domesticated plants and animals with which New Jersey farmers have continued to experiment. Other Dutch farmers followed Van Putten, but withdrew due to hostilities with the Lenape. The Dutch returned in 1660, and after the English conquest of New Netherland in 1664 a great influx of farmers of various European origins arrived, along with slaves (especially in Dutch-settled areas) and free blacks.

Unlike the Lenape, who were subsistence farmers and also depended on hunting, fishing, and gathering, these settlers were commercially oriented from the outset. They were expected to pay taxes and desired European imports, and thus had to produce a marketable surplus. The areas first settled reflected this commercial orientation, with their proximity to navigable waterways and the better soils. The Piedmont and Inner Coastal Plain rapidly filled up, while the poor soils of the readily accessible Outer Coastal Plain were generally avoided.

Agriculture in early New Jersey was influenced by several factors. The environment was a major one—New Jersey’s long, warm summers were especially favorable to corn, for example. The cultural backgrounds of the settlers and the markets they hoped to supply were also important. Because early New En-glanders settled in groups and tended to have rather small farms, they needed a crop that would return high monetary yields per unit-area cultivated. Another major factor was the cost and feasibility of transporting the produce to market.

By 1750 New Jersey was well known as one of the "Bread Colonies,” a term including New York, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. Wheat and flour were major exports. In New Jersey, wheat production was especially profitable in the Raritan Valley, where good soils and an amenable climate were joined by relatively inexpensive transport of crops and flour to the entrepot of New York by way of ports and landings on the Raritan River. At about the same time, the large farms on the good soils of the southern Inner Coastal Plain and Piedmont concentrated on the cultivation of corn, which was fed to cattle and especially to hogs. "Burlington Pork,” which was exported through Philadelphia, particularly to the Caribbean, had a wide reputation. For the New Englanders of northeastern New Jersey, the answer for their small farms was apple orchards. As did others, these farmers grew the full panoply of crops for their own use and local sale, but concentrated on producing dried apples for the Caribbean market and, even more importantly, on fermenting and distilling apple cider into apple brandy—the well-known "Jersey Lightning.” In areas more remote from the major ports of Philadelphia and New York or on poor soils, livestock roamed the woods, with ownership of the animals established by registered "ear notches.” For such farmers, fences were to keep livestock out rather than in.

By midcentury, New Jersey was indeed, as Benjamin Franklin is supposed to have said, "a barrel tapped at both ends,” with produce flowing to and through the ports of Philadelphia and New York. Much of the success of these two ports came from the fruits of the labor of New Jersey farmers. The corridor between these two cities, lying on the fertile and readily accessible soils of the Piedmont and Inner Coastal Plain, was densely settled and most productive. A typical contemporary view was that expressed by a Swedish scholar, Peter Kalm, in October of 1748: "I never saw any place in America, the towns excepted, so well populated.”

At about the time of the Revolution, the soils in many areas in New Jersey had been depleted of their nutrients. Also, a serious Eurasian pest, the "Hessian fly,” had been introduced, temporarily devastating wheat production. And, of course, loss of the colonial relationship with England disrupted traditional markets, especially in the Caribbean. On the other hand, the local market was growing, slowly at first, but then rapidly as the urban centers, particularly New York and Philadelphia, blossomed. New Jersey farmers close to these markets were already specializing in perishables and produce expensive to transport (truck crops, fattened cattle), and this trend intensified. Jersey farmers increased production of corn as a fodder for livestock, which became the meat consumed by urban dwellers. Hides as a by-product flowed especially to places like Newark, expanding an already important leather industry, adding population, and again expanding the market for other agricultural products.

Succeeding improvements in transportation—turnpikes, canals, and railroads—made the urban markets ever more accessible to the New Jersey hinterland. Clearance for agriculture took place on increasingly marginal land in some places.

By 1860 nearly 3 million of the state’s total area of 4.8 million acres lay in farms. In addition to expanding acreage, in many places there had been various attempts to improve soil fertility and productivity. Along the lower Delaware River and Bay, banks (dikes) were raised to drain areas of rich alluvial soils. In southern New Jersey the application of marl, a calcareous material found widely on the Inner Coastal Plain, improved soil not only there but also on the nearby poor sandy soils of the Outer Coastal Plain. Finally, lime burning and the application of lime to the soil became widespread in the southern Highlands and Ridge and Valley sections.

Improvements in transportation such as the railroad were a two-edged sword for New Jersey farmers, making the urban markets much more accessible to lower-cost producers located beyond New Jersey. New Jersey farmers responded by becoming increasingly more efficient and knowledgeable in regard to improved crops and livestock. In i855 the New Jersey State Agricultural Society (having originated in i78i) was reorganized, joining several county organizations already in existence.

Increasingly, New Jersey farmers turned their attention to fresh produce for the nearby urban markets. These areas were not only growing rapidly in population during the nineteenth century, but also providing the income that allowed purchase of produce beyond the staples of the past. By i856, for example, Bergen and Passaic counties were described as "one large strawberry patch,” and two years later one gate on the Bergen Turnpike recorded i,i00 wagons headed for New York with i.5 million baskets of strawberries.

Momentum toward agricultural modernization picked up in the post-Civil War period through the interplay of factors such as new institutions for the support of agriculture, advances in raising crops and livestock, development of agricultural machines and chemicals, urbanization, and new marketing organizations.

The Morrill Act of 1862, also known as the Land-Grant Act, was landmark federal legislation that provided institutional support for the growth of agriculture. The act authorized the establishment of a land-grant college in each state to teach agriculture, conduct agricultural research, and provide extension services. The act provided financial support for these colleges in the form of grants of public lands. The second Morrill Act, 1890, allocated annual federal funding for these institutions. Rutgers College in i864 became a land-grant institution through the establishment of the Rutgers Scientific School, the predecessor of Cook College.

In 1872 the state of New Jersey enacted legislation for the establishment of the New Jersey State Board of Agriculture. The legislation describes the mission of the state board to "become the center about which to collect the results of successful farming and from which to send out digested information in regard to the great questions of farm economy, tillage, crops, stock, fertilizers, reclamation of land, training of farmers, etc.” Professor George H. Cook was the board’s first secretary. The board widely disseminated annual reports that included practical solutions for farmers. The board stopped producing reports in 1916 and henceforth determined the annual priorities of the newly created New Jersey State Department of Agriculture.

The Department of Agriculture published monthly bulletins on important topics for farmers, with each bulletin focusing on a single problem. For example, the early bulletins covered issues such as control of hog cholera, marketing, farm sources of soil fertility, tuberculosis control in dairy cows, and the Japanese beetle menace.

In 1880 the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station was founded to comply with the mission of the land-grant college. Professor George H. Cook was appointed as its first director. (Cook College was later named after him for his pioneering contribution to New Jersey agriculture.)

Table 1 provides a portrait of agriculture in New Jersey in 1870 when a total of 62 percent of the land was devoted to agriculture: 41 percent as cropland and pastures and an additional 21 percent attached to farms as unimproved land. The agriculture at this time can be described as mixed farming. Most farmers raised both livestock and crops. Annual income for the state as a whole from animals slaughtered or sold for slaughter was six times higher than income for orchard produce and more than twice that of the market for garden products.

The high rate of industrialization and immigration had a great impact on New Jersey agriculture. New Jersey’s population of half a million in 1850 doubled by 1875 and doubled again by 1900. Urban growth during this period was explosive. In 1850 urban population in New Jersey was 18 percent. It increased to 50 percent by 1875 and reached 71 percent by 1900. The rapidly growing urban centers of the Northeast became attractive national markets. Responding to these societal changes, New Jersey agriculture became more mechanized and market oriented, with a higher degree of specialization.

In 1870 the counties of Burlington, Hun-terdon, Monmouth, Gloucester, and Salem, in that order, were the top income producers of agricultural products. Specialization was also evident. For example, Sussex County became the top producer of milk and butter. Camden was the top producer of peas and beans, and Hudson was top in greenhouse-market garden products. Burlington and Ocean counties were the top producers of cranberries in the nation. Because cranberry cultivation required boggy soil and lots of fresh water, the Pinelands sections of these counties have remained major cranberry producers. Blueberries, another Pinelands crop, were domesticated from swamp huckleberries by Elizabeth White of Burlington County.

New Jersey agriculture was at the forefront of adopting new machines and methods. Labor shortages in the farm sector at the turn of the twentieth century and thereafter became acute and provided the impetus for rapid mechanization. Steam engines were widely used for threshing, hulling clover, filling silos, and other tasks. Gasoline tractors and motor trucks appeared in 1917, along with electric motors, bringing about the rapid mechanization that transformed agriculture. By 1930 horses were no longer used on most farms.

Table 1. New Jersey Agriculture, 1870

Total value of products and betterments			$42,725,198*
Orchard products		3.0%
Market garden products		7.0%
Value of animals slaughtered or sold for slaughter		16.3°%
Number of horses	79,700
Number of mules	8,800
Number of cows	133,300
Number of oxen	3,800
Number of sheep	120,000
Number of swine	142,000
Percent total value of livestock		50.2°%
Percent total value of other commodities and betterments		23.5%
Wheat (bushels)	2,301,000
Corn (bushels)	8,745,000
Oats (bushels)	4,010,000
Potatoes (bushels)	4,705,000
Sweet potatoes (bushels)	1,551,000
Butter (pounds)	8,266,000
Milk (gallons)	5,373,000
Hay (tons)	522,000
Percent N.J. land in farms			62%

Another significant development that increased agricultural productivity was the invention by Carol Bosch and Walter Haber of the process to manufacture ammonia—the basis of nitrogen fertilizer. Farmers were always concerned with the fertility of the soil. Green marl, phosphate rock, guano (seabird droppings excavated from Peru)—along with barn manure—were widely used. Nitrogen fertilizer led to rapid increases in crop yields.

To assure consumers of the high quality of New Jersey products, inspection and grading practices were instituted just before World War I. Fruits, vegetables, eggs, milk, meat, poultry, and livestock were covered under this program. Grading helped in the marketing and promotion of these products. Canning of fruits and vegetables was common, but remained a small component. But during World War II, demand for New Jersey canned goods soared.

Income from various agricultural activities from 1930 to 1996 shows far-reaching changes (Table 2). Poultry, dairy, and other livestock, which were the bedrock of New Jersey agriculture, have been eclipsed. Potatoes and sweet potatoes have also declined. A bright spot since 1970 has been the substantial increase in value of Standard bred horses for racing, sport, and recreational activities. Grain and hay were a small component, but show increases since 1950. Soybeans, a new crop, contributed to this increase. Nursery and greenhouse products have increased in importance, contributing one-third of the current agricultural income. Peaches have replaced apples as the dominant fruit.

In 1997 the top five agricultural-income-producing counties in descending order were Cumberland, Burlington, Salem, Monmouth, Gloucester, and Atlantic. Nursery items, vegetables, fruits, and berries are major products in all these counties.

Recently farm size and number show an interesting trend. The number of farms of less than 9 acres and 10-50 acres have increased. The owners of these small farms are usually supported by nonfarm income. On the other extreme, the number of farms over 1,000 acres has also increased. Farms between these two categories have decreased.

Today agriculture is a very small but highly valued segment of New Jersey’s economy. Income from agricultural products in 1997 was $700 million, less than one-half of one percent of the total income of the state. Suburban and exurban encroachment on agricultural land is visible everywhere. The state government has programs to protect farmland through the purchase of development rights, preservation of open spaces, and through the state master plan.

New Jersey, a small state, cannot muscle its way to national markets like its competitors California and Florida. New Jersey agriculture, with specialized products, has to cater to the market for fresh fruits and vegetables within the tristate region, New England, and eastern Canada. Through its "Jersey Fresh” media campaign in these regions, the state government is making a concerted effort to promote its locally grown fruits and vegetables, such as asparagus, bell peppers, spinach, lettuce, cucumbers, tomatoes, snap beans, cabbage, squash, eggplant, cranberries, blueberries, peaches, and corn.

Table 2. New Jersey Agricultural Income, 1930-1996

	1930	1940	1950	1960	1970	1980	1990	1996
Percent of total income
Poultry and eggs	22.8	24.9	37.8	28.4	14.3	3.8	5.4	3.9
Dairy products	23.5	29.1	20.6	22.3	19.4	15.0	8.2	5.6
Hogs	2.2	1.4	1.9	1.6	2.5	1.3	0.3	0.2
Cattle, calves, and other livestock	3.3	3.6	4.0	4.4	4.6	4.1	2.6	1.2
Horses*	-	—	—	—	-	4.0	13.7	13.4
All vegetables	18.6	18.6	15.7	17.7	23.4	20.0	15.8	23.0
All fruits and berries	9.8	6.0	4.8	8.3	9.6	13.7	8.8	13.4
Potatoes/sweet potatoes	7.5	6.4	4.6	3.7	3.9	4.4	2.0	1.0
Grains and hay	2.1	1.6	1.9	4.0	5.9	13.3	8.0	7.8
Nursery and greenhouse	11.1	10.6	8.8	9.6	15.9	18.8	35.3	31.5
Total income (in thousands)	$107,803	$104,764	$292,717	$295,460	$242,047	$438,449	$648,812	$805,506
Total income in 1997 (in thousands)	$997,253	$962,020	$1,248,793	$1,180,895	$826,663	$592,259	$692,509	$792,353
Percent land in farms	36.5	38.9	37.0	30.0	22.0	21.0	18.0	17.4
Number of farms	27,300	27,200	26,900	15,800	8,600	9,400	8,100	9,200