Just-in-Time Training (JITT) and its Implications for Teaching and Learning (Distance Learning)

INTRODUCTION

You are in a heated discussion with friends about the meaning and origin of a particular phrase. Someone uses his wireless computer to access the Internet and “googles” the debated phrase. The dispute is resolved in seconds. You attend a conference in a new city and get lost on the way to the convention center. Turning on your GPS system in your rental car, you are then guided by a soft, calming voice with explicit instructions to your destination, including warnings of upcoming turns as well as detours around any recent road construction. This “just-in-time” information is available to us through the advancements in technology. With the constant evolution of new technology as well as the increased speed of information retrieval, we often take for granted the “just-in-time” aspect of this process.

Just-in-time training, or preferably just-in-time learning, has altered the training and preparation of workers in industry, and currently has educational implications in all fields. The technological advances have made it possible to match specific knowledge and skills with the worker or learner, literally, when and where they need it. An example from industry is the worker whose line shuts down because of a mechanical problem. Within seconds, she/he is consulting with someone half way around the world who already has all the technical data about the system breakdown on his/her computer. A few seconds later through live video, he/she demonstrates to the worker how to fix the problem.

Industry no longer expects public education to teach technical skills. The speed of technological advances would make it impossible and financially unwieldy to stay current with equipment and training. They also do not wish to invest a lot of money in pretraining their workers. Pretraining does not guarantee that the worker will have or be able to access the knowledge and skills when confronted 9 months later with an on-the-job problem-solving event or stay current with the ever-changing technology. The best of training or learning comes “just in time.”

BACKGROUND

The expression “just-in-time” (JIT) was used initially in industry related to the application of production-inventory and customer response. The technology and software available improved the ordering process and thus increased productivity and eliminated waste. Using the “just-in-time” application significantly reduced inventory costs for the company, while improving response time for customers.

The concept of “just-in-time” was then applied to training in industry and referred to as just-in-time training or JITT. The expanding training needs of the workplace have made JITT a major part of the human resource development departments of companies. JIT learning was not invented by “workplace educators and performance specialists within the human resource development field, but rather it (was) conceptualized as an evolutionary response to the demands of a knowledge-driven and speed-oriented market place” (Bradenburg & Ellinger, 2003, p 311). Horton (2000) provides guidance in designing Web-based training. The author refers to the exploding demand for training in technical knowledge needed for trained technology workers and how Web-based training is suited to meet this need. “Just-in-time learning systems deliver training to workers when and where they need it. Rather than sitting through hours of traditional classroom training, users can tap into Web-based tutorials, interactive CD-ROMs and other tools to zero in on just the information they need to solve problems, perform specific tasks or quickly update their skills” (Sambataro, 2000, p. 50).

The “just-in-time” concept has recently been expanded to a more general application in the human resources departments of corporations. JITT, and the expanded use of technology resources, has provided a framework for more effective and efficient training and staff development of workers, as well as classroom, face-to-face alternatives for course work in higher education. While having roots in industry, just-in-time-training and learning evolved from many factors. Bradenburg and Ellinger (2003) identifies other subtrends that contributed to the expansion of the JIT training and learning concept. He noted that the move toward “the virtual workplace, the growth of knowledge capital, and the increasing rate of change all became factors in the JITT movement” (p. 304). The expansion of JITT and learning did not stop at the worker/learner level, but was also applied to customer-based initiatives, as well. Sambataro (2000) provides the example of Schwab & Company applying the “just-in-time” concept for free investment education for prospective and existing customers in order to address concerns and fears over investment issues quickly and effectively.

Application of JITT

JITT has been applied in the fields ofmedicine, technology, and the United States Armed Forces. For example, JITT has been applied to technology training. Kutzik (2005) discusses the distinction between training that is ongoing and training that is justin-time. The author describes the need for ongoing technology training as components created to provide training for new or transferred employees. These training modules are considered “off-the-shelf sessions and are often delivered one-on-one (trainer to employee) or taught in small classes scheduled frequently through the year” (p 8). Materials for this continuous, basic training are developed and updated regularly. In contrast, just-in-time technology training is “mandated by an emerging situation” (p. 8). Here, simulated and interactive tutorials are provided online or burned to disk. The author concludes that “although the use of presentation and simulation software tutorials can be of great assistance in learning new technology, the time demands of just-in-time training make creating these resources problematic” (Kutzik, 2005, p.10).

The U.S. Navy has added JITT to its training programs. Harris (2005) describes a report of increased knowledge of material and significant behavior change in Navy personnel as a result of an online, interactive course in leadership (p. 45). “Part of the mission of its four-year-old Revolution in Training initiative is to integrate the Navy’s manpower, personnel and training organizations into a single information-rich human resource management system” (p. 45). “The plans will also reflect just-in-time training priorities, so sailors learn only what they need to, precisely when then need it” (p. 45). The author points out that in contrast to the past, the U.S. Navy’s “new open source architecture makes skills-related information widely available” (p 45). In addition, the Navy training program has linked specific competencies with training. Training is designed for the individual. Given a sailor with certain skills in an occupation, the training program focuses on the missing skills and the individual receives training on only what is needed rather than the one-size-fits all mentality of a comprehensive program (Harris, 2005, p. 46).

The Navy demonstrated the importance of a systems approach when incorporating JITT into its programs:

The Navy was discovering that the traditional way to ‘treat ‘problems had been to focus only on the individual, and the usual answer was more training. The assumption was that poor performance was simply a result of poor knowledge or skill that could be easily fixed by sending the sailor back to school. In fact, more training historically solves the problem less than 20 percent of the time. Other contributors to poor performance relate to processes, incentives, tools and equipment, manpower and clarity of goals. (Harris, 2005 p. 47)

Trotter (2007) found JITT an effective method for the diagnosis and repair of mechanical problems. The author identified the need for organizations to link Web-based strategies with on-demand availability, just-in-time requirements, and on-the job needs.Again, learning and retention were increased with the application of multimedia resources as 3-D visuals, animation, and interactivity. The author describes Scorm (Sharable content object reference model) guidelines defined by the Department of Defense. These guidelines assure JITT instructional materials are created and shared throughout the branches of service, saving time and money. Leach and Haun (2003) describe the use of JITT in the medical field. The authors point out that learning takes place when adults are motivated by a need for information. Their study demonstrated the quality of learning that takes place when instruction is matched to the needs of the learner, as well as the use of pictures and color in transmitting information.

A different form of just-in-time training for classroom teachers sans computer is a form of peer coaching. Peer coaching is the process where two teachers agree to work collegially for the improvement of instruction. One process of peer coaching is for the teaching colleague to actively coach the learning colleague during instruction in the classroom. The coach is in the classroom near the teacher while she/he is teaching. The coach observes the teacher and literally stops him/her when there is an opportunity for learning something new. Students are informed of the process so they understand and accept the short interruptions. The coach explains what he or she observed and if necessary, recommends an alternative strategy or instructional adjustment. The teacher can then redo this aspect of the lesson given the recommendation. In some cases, the coach may demonstrate the alternative method or strategy while providing some explanation of the educational pedagogy that supports it. This approach is highly effective because of its just-in-time nature and immediacy of application. No technology is involved, only the knowledge and experience of the coach and a collegial relationship between coach and teacher are necessary.

MAIN FOCUS: JIT TRAINING AND LEARNING COMPARED TO FORMAL LEARNING

The traditional methodology used for training or learning, regardless of context, involved the teacher/ instructor dispensing information and knowledge to the student or worker. The quality of instruction would vary. One instructor lectures while another uses more effective techniques, like cooperative groups, small group discussions, role playing, or application activities for participants to analyze, synthesize, and apply new knowledge to new situations. The conceptual framework for JIT training and learning demands a paradigm shift that moves the control from the instructor to the learner while taking time and place and making them irrelevant to the learning event. Instructor-led, face-to-face training, even with the best teaching/learning strategies, can be too fast or too slow, depending on the learner. JIT training and learning provides flexibility that allows the self-directed learner to move at his or her own speed, providing opportunities to repeat lessons as needed in an asynchronous style.

Bradenburg and Ellinger (2003 P. 310) provides the following chart (Table 1), comparing the attributes of the learning environments of traditional education contrasted with that of a just-in-time learning environment.

It is easy to see why a worker/learner would prefer the just-in-time learning environment, and why the relevance of the learning is more likely to become an integral part of the learner’s knowledge base instead of an add-on that is quickly forgotten from lack of use or relevance.

Galagan (1990) points out some of the contradictions implicit in the formal education process:

• Formal education is seen as events; learning is a process.

• Formal education, while competency-based, usually just transfers information.

• Training groups are homogeneous; groups are becoming more heterogeneous.

• Experts structure education for the learner; the learner/worker controls learning.

• Workers/learners must “know” before they can “do”; workers/learners assess their capability throughout the learning process.

• Post-training support is in place; post-training, if it exists, is usually inadequate.

• People are trained to do static jobs; most jobs are changing at an ever-increasing rate (p. 40).

The workplace can take on significant changes when industry training takes on the JIT training and learning challenge:

…Adults’ workplace experiences, trawled through reflective practices and structured in programs like mentoring, are epistemologically a long way from the traditional view that learning is the filling up of empty vessels with knowledge. The metaphor was one where a teacher or trainer filled up the skill deficit by imparting, repeating and in general transferring knowledge or skills again and again until students got it right. Then the assumption was that this new skill would itself transfer readily to the real work beyond the classroom. (Beckett, 2001, pp. 73-74).

JIT training and learning should result in all educators, regardless of workplace or context, reflecting on the teaching-learning process. How many people in the educating business actually perceive the role of teacher as deliverer of information vs. facilitator of learning? Perhaps this explains why the lecture method seems so popular when the role is viewed as a transfer of chunks of information from an expert (the teacher), to the empty vessels (the students).

Table 1. Attributes of two learning environments

In JITT, learning becomes a “just-in-time vs. just in case” (Horton, 2000, p. 143).

Benefits of Just in Time Training and Learning

Just-in-time training and learning (JITTL) can be implemented to save time and money while improving learning outcomes for participants. The implementation of this technological innovation into the learning environment can be a great opportunity to employ best practices in educational processes, whether in a work context or a university course. If used in conjunction with the best we know about learning, JIT training and learning (JITTL) can be successful for all.

JITTL can be a strategy that supports and exemplifies the constructivist theory in learning. Constructivist practice transfers responsibility of learning process to the learner. The learner uses prior knowledge and new information or skills to build new knowledge frameworks, thus “constructing” new knowledge using his or her own blueprints. No two learners construct the same knowledge framework, thus, making the learning personalized as well as embedded.

Catherine Twomey Fosnot (1989) lists four principles in defining constructivism:

1. Knowledge consists of past constructions

2. Constructions come about through assimilation and accommodation.

3. Learning is an organic process of invention, rather than a mechanical process of accumulation.

4. Meaningful learning occurs through reflection and resolution of cognitive conflict and, thus, serves to negate earlier, incomplete levels of understanding (p. 40).

Through JITTL, the learner uses prior knowledge to self-select new learning. Establishing modules of learning that require the user to analyze and synthesize prior and new knowledge; determine knowledge needed; and apply that knowledge in a new situation can result in the learner creating a new knowledge framework and successful retention of new knowledge.

Constructivist practices applied to JITTL can enhance the success of both student and program. The following set of descriptors of constructivist teaching behaviors underscore the use of best practices in teaching in classrooms. These same behaviors can be easily applied to JITTL:

1. Constructivist teachers encourage and accept student autonomy and initiative.

2. Constructivist teachers use raw data and primary sources along with manipulative, interactive, and physical materials.

3. When framing tasks, constructivist teachers use cognitive terminology such as “classify,” “analyze,” “predict,” and “create.”

4. Constructivist teachers allow student responses to drive lessons, shift instructional strategies, and alter content.

5. Constructivist teachers inquire about students’ understandings of concepts before sharing their own understandings of those concepts.

6. Constructivist teachers encourage students to engage in dialogue, both with the teacher and with one another.

7. Constructivist teachers encourage student inquiry by asking thoughtful, open-ended questions, and encouraging students to ask questions of each other.

8. Constructivist teachers seek elaboration of students’ initial responses.

9. Constructivist teachers engage students in experiences that might engender contradictions to their initial hypotheses and then encourage discussion.

10. Constructivist teachers allow wait time after posing questions.

11. Constructivist teachers provide time for students to construct relationships and create metaphors.

12. Constructivist teachers nurture students’ natural curiosity through frequent use of the learning cycle model. (Brooks, & Brooks, 1993, pp. 103-118).

Applying these principle s in a JITTL model not only transfers the learning power from instructor to learner, it significantly changes the role of the instructor/teacher. There is no “sit and get” for the student and there is certainly no “assign and grade” for the teacher. The teacher becomes a facilitator of learning and actively monitors and adjusts throughout the learning process based on interaction and feedback from learners. The organization of learning opportunities is a fluid process that should be revised and adapted as learners interact with knowledge from the teacher, resources, and classmates.

Foote, Vermette, & Battaglia, (2001, pp. 98-125) compare the ideal constructivist practices to the more traditional, nonconstructivist practices that are still a part of many classrooms. The authors provide this comparison in the areas of classroom arrangement, curriculum, lesson plans, assessment, and classroom management. This resource was intended for adolescent classrooms; but the comparisons listed can clarify areas for providing a constructivist framework to JITTL initiatives.

In addition to constructivist practices, reflective practice in the learning process can make new learning an integral part of the learner’s knowledge framework, rather than pieces of knowledge stored temporarily until the test at the end of the training or course. Reflection can be thought of as “thinking about your thinking,” or “thinking about your learning.” Given the structure of JITTL, reflection can become a critical part of the learning when the learner is making decisions about what, how much, and when to learn. This learner-centered approach naturally requires reflection to make those important decisions about the learning process. With integrated feedback loops, the learner can be involved in formative evaluation throughout a given training module. Reflective questions such as What have I learned? How does this fit with what I already know about this topic? Where might I use this information and where would I not want to use this?, are a natural part of formative evaluation that is learner centered.

Support or guided practice for the learner becomes critical when setting out to learn something new. While JITTL can limit the amount of live interaction with instructors, feedback from a knowledgeable expert is still possible. Videoconferencing can provide knowledgeable experts when needed.

Successful learning also requires guidance and support. While a learner works on a new skill they need a “coach” to help guide them through the practice and provide important feedback about corrections or modifications. This coach can be in the form of a facilitator/instructor or another learner in another part of the world made available in a timely fashion through distance-learning technology.

Aligned assessments are also critical to a successful learning experience. Any assessment or learning check that does not match the objectives of the learning experience can be distracting and a waste of time for the learner. JITTL must provide assessment processes aligned to appropriate learning objectives and activities. This assessment is critical in giving the learner validation for his or her learning.

Walker (2002) highlights the following benefits to e-learning that can apply to JITTL:

• Content can be stored and reused by others.

• Small blocks of time can be devoted to learning for improved efficiency.

• Learning can take place anywhere there is a computer, laptop, or personal digital assistant (PDA).

• Learning can be personalized and interactivity.

• Well-trained employees are more comfortable in their jobs and less likely to leave.

Just-in-time training and learning (JITTL) can provide a learner-centered experience. This is the best of teaching and learning because it focuses on what the learner knows and what the learner needs to know.

JITTL provides the best of learning experiences. The learner gets “it” when they need “it.” It eliminates the adult version of the eighth grade math teacher’s rant about why students will need to know algebra when they grow up.

JITTL provides learner friendly pacing. Not only when the learner needs to know something, but how frequently or how quickly he or she can learn it. Also, learner friendly pacing offers the flexibility in time of day or day of the week, depending on working hours and/or family responsibilities.

JITTL can provide consistent knowledge and training for the workplace without requiring the same time and place for any two workers.

JITTL can be cost effective, given technology systems that support the process. “There are also big saving in increased productivity and efficiency. Online training cuts time by letting users grab only the chunks of information they need from the convenience of their desks. (Sambataro, 2000, p. 50).

Challenges of Just-in-Time Training and Learning

Cost: One of the challenges of just-in-time training and learning (JITTL) can be costs. An organization without the technological system or infrastructure that supports an interactive model learning and training will have costly initial investments. “…Facilitating and supporting a JIT learning infrastructure is highly dependent on the integration of multiple interdisciplinary perspectives including technology, human resource management, HRD, leadership, and organizational theory” (Bradenburg & Elinger, 2003, p. 316).

Content management and development: There is a need for content management systems that “enable chunking and tracking of structured knowledge into small objects and break apart, organize and offer the content in logical units.” (Weintraub & Martineau, 2002, p. 54). Self-directed learners then select the units and modules that match the information or skill need at hand. Content management personnel need to be skilled in task analysis. For any required knowledge, skill, or procedure content managers need to be able to analyze the task, separate into steps, and sequence the learning in an appropriate context for each stage of the process.

In developing just-in-time training and learning (JITTL) modules, knowledge that lends itself to chunking and content that is nonlinear can be used more successfully. Specifically, nonlinear content in a JITTL program allows the learners to chart their own route through the material. In addition, skills in a JITTL framework need to have the flexibility for application by the learner in an online setting. In any given learning module, the review of content and procedural knowledge, and the subsequent application of that knowledge to a new situation, must be in close proximity, with built-in learning checks and opportunities to revisit modules. Weintraub and Martineau (2002) discuss how the role of the human resource development professionals is changing from development and delivery of training to knowledge structuring, learning facilitation, and support. They point out the: need to annex the use of intellectual capitalfor learning, perhaps recording it in more learnable formats such as stories. Further, we need accentuate knowledge sharing, or what we know as informal collaborative learning. Employees tell us again and again that a good deal of their learning takes place through dialogue with the right person, at the right time. However, the process for doing that is inefficient, especially in our mobile environment. Our job includes connecting employees having “knowledge problems” with the appropriate experts for quick knowledge sharing through the most-efficient electronic vehicles. Such vehicles also permit learning meetings, through which experts with the guidance of educators can convey their knowledge quickly to groups of employees. (p. 53)

Social aspect to learning: A final challenge for JIT training and learning (JITTL) initiatives is to keep the human and social aspects of learning (high-touch) integrated into the high-tech process. This requires modules to be interactive events enlisting not only instructors, but colearners as well, into the exchange of ideas, information and questions:

With this recognition of the importance of integrating technology and human beings, JIT learning needs to be linked to supportive organizational policies and cultures with HRD professionals intimately involved with the development and deployment of such systems so that innovative and purposeful knowledge creation, learning, and performance is facilitated and nurtured and not simply engineered by highly integrated technology infrastructures. (Brandenburg & Ellinger, 2003, p.317)

FUTURE TRENDS

It is critical to JIT training and learning that developers recognize what is appropriate for JIT training and learning and what is not. The social interaction of the learning process is important. Given a learner, a computer, and series of modules, this aspect of learning could be overlooked. The interaction with other learners can be provided in the JITTL model through a format of synchronous (live) or asynchronous discussions with colearners, facilitators, and experts.

Novicki (1996) describes an interactive simulation designed for a consulting firm. The following learning rules, used as a framework for creating the simulation program, can also apply to the development of JITTL:

• People are more likely to learn by making mistakes than by being told what to do.

• Education on demand is more effective than education on schedule. Users control the pace and direction of learning.

• People understand and remember best when information comes in the form of well-told “war stories” from expert veterans. This can be provided through a “corporate memory” of video clips of interviews with experts. • Performance can be improved only by performance . Trainees/learners can see the consequences of their actions and can move forward to learn the results of their decisions.

CONCLUSION

JIT training and learning (JITTL) is a great strategy from corporate America designed to meet the training and learning needs of workers with just the right information at just the right time. This concept can easily be expanded to create learning organizations in work or academia when combined with other strategies and cooperative teams.

In education, JITTL has potential for the practitioner. Whether it is designed for use by teachers, administrators, or other support staff, JITTL offers the same advantages to the educational arena as it does to industry. Getting just the right information at just the right time could revolutionize the professional development programs in schools and districts as well as learning in higher education. No more using the precious few hours on a designated staff development day to fly in the “expert” for high fees to “talk at” the masses of educational personnel in a given district. Being able to design professional development to meet the specific needs of the school employees is not only smart, but cost effective as well.

In the arena of higher education, JITT can also be used to personalize the learning of the student who can, not only, take charge of what they learn, but when and how they learn it. Using the power of background knowledge, the learner can personalize his or her education and access “on demand” knowledge, skills, and application in a personalized sequence and at a speed appropriate to the learner’s style and situation.

JITTL can be an exciting and revolutionary addition to preservice educators, as well as practitioners, if it is built into the larger picture of the learning process. As is often the case in education, especially with technological advances, there is a tendency to apply a new strategy everywhere and all the time. This is the “one size fits all” syndrome in education. If properly aligned with program goals and objectives, the benefits and format of just-in-time training and learning can only be value-added for lifelong learning for students and educators.

Horton (2000) discusses the past separate areas of learning in schools and universities vs. training in industry and trade schools. While corporate training moves toward conceptual learning, universities have begun to offer skills-based technology training. It is only a matter of time before the two arenas of training and education merge. “Continuing education will move to the big tent and out of the sideshow. Gradually, universities and private industry will acknowledge that education, though more intense in early years, continues uninterruptedly throughout life.” (Horton, 2000, p. 579).

KEY TERMS

Asynchronous: A form of online discussion among students, workers, or instructors. Participants post comments, opinions, reflections, or questions to a type of online discussion board. Participants can read and respond to others’ postings. Participants can access or post at any time.

Constructivism: Constructivism learning principles focus on the learner and what he or she brings to the educational experience, as well as how the knowledge framework changes as a result of new learning. Constructivist learning principles require the teacher/ instructor to focus on the learner, prior knowledge, and facilitation of active learning.

E-Learning: E-learning or electronic learning refers to any online frameworks that bring education or training to an individual who may access this learning from the computer.

Learning on Demand: Learning on demand is a phrase associated with the concept of just-in-time learning. It is specifically associated with the learner’s role in determining what they want or need to learn at any given time.

PDA: The PDA or personal digital assistant is a type of handheld computer.

Synchronous: A form of online discussion among students, workers, or instructors that is scheduled for a specific time. It may be referred to as a “live chat,” where all participants are online at the same time in a virtual chat room.

WBT: Web-based training refers to all training programs provided online that significantly eliminate the need for same time and same place for learning events.