Neo-Confucianism (lixue)
Neo-Confucianism is a label given to a development in Chinese intellectual history that incorporated some of the metaphysical aspects of Buddhism into Confucianism. The Song dynasty (960-1279) saw an amazing convergence of talent and creativity in most areas of Chinese culture. Philosophically the major tenor of the age was a reenvisioning of the orthodoxy that had guided Chinese regimes since the Han dynasty (206 B.C.E.-220 C.E.), Confucianism. The scholars of the day were familiar with Buddhist principles and the many newly translated Buddhist texts, works often of great subtlety. These Confucian thinkers incorporated and modeled the vast amount of metaphysical and speculative material in Buddhism and created a complete system that, unlike early Confucianism, had answers to metaphysical questions. Their results are nevertheless still recognizable as Confucianism. The fundamental bases are humanity (ren) and the cultivation of mind and morality. The Neo-Confucians also believed in the essential rationality of the universe: the human mind is capable of comprehending the universe, despite its complexity.
The founding philosopher in this school was Zhou Dunyi (1017-73 c.e.). In his Taiji tushuo (An Explanation of the diagram of the great ultimate) and Tongshu (Penetration of the Book of Changes) he presented a metaphysical vision that paved the way for later Neo-Confucian thinkers. His philosophy was essentially based on an interpretation of the Book of Changes (Yijing). By doing this he grouped the key concepts of principle (li), nature, and destiny together. His work shows the obvious influence of Daoist ideas then current in intellectual circles.
With the exception of Zhou Dunyi, Neo-Confucianism is divided into two major schools, the school of principle (lixue) and the school of mind (xinxue). They were associated with different thinkers, but many of their differences came down to pedagogy, or what we would today perhaps term methodology. The lixue thinkers, particularly Cheng Yi (1033-1107) and Zhu Xi (1130-1200), believed in gradual learning, which would eventually illuminate xing, true nature. The term li in lixue is simply the principle associated with xing, the reflection of (human) nature. The individual should follow Confucius’s recommendations in, for instance, the Da xue (Great Learning), and move from investigations of things to investigation of knowledge itself.
Proponents of xinxue, the school of mind, put emphasis on intention (chengyi). One need not go outside to accumulate understanding; one need simply realize the principle (li) already inherent within. This process is liangzhi, innate knowledge. Major thinkers in the xinxue camp include Lu Xiangshan (1139-93) and Wang Yangming (1472-1529).
All Neo-Confucians put emphasis on realizing one’s status as a sage (shengren). This was formerly a label reserved for the grand masters of the past, the enlightened figures from antiquity who passed down essential knowledge. Now every cultivator could achieve sagehood. Just as the Buddhist practitioner aims to achieve enlightenment, the Confucian scholar’s efforts to cultivate sagehood became a religious goal. And how is sagehood defined? Simply, as complete unity between the individual and heaven (tian).
Invigorated with this religious interpretation of cultivation, and the perspective afforded by metaphysics, Neo-Confucianism became the de facto official dogma for all major states in East Asia: China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam.
Nepal, Buddhism in
The modern nation of Nepal was created in the 18th century by King Prithvi. It is a long, thin, largely mountainous country in the Himalayan mountains, home to Mt. Everest. It is the only officially Hindu nation in the world, and more than 75 percent of the people follow the state-sponsored faith. There is, however a strong Buddhist minority of approximately 2 million, or about 8 percent of the population.
A number of ethnic Tibetans reside in the higher mountains. They seem to have migrated to Nepal in the 16th and 17th centuries and follow a form of NYINGMA religion. Among the most interesting Buddhists are the Newar people, whose beliefs and practices appear to date to the third century b.c.e. The Nepal community remained in contact with like-minded Vajrayana Buddhism believers in India until the 10th century C.E., when Buddhism was suppressed in northeast India by the Muslim conquerors. Many Indians fled to Nepal at this time. Newar Buddhism thus maintains the pre-Tibetan forms of Vajrayana practice.
Six-armed white Avalokitesvara (Amoghapasa Loke-suam) bodhisattva figure, made by a Nepalese artist in carved wood and plaster, in tribhanga pose (with hip to the side);
Baumann, eds., Religions of the World: A Comprehensive topic of Beliefs and Practices (Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-Clio, 2002), 925-927; S. Ortner, High Religion: A Cultural and Political History of Sherpa Buddhism (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1989).
Newar Buddhism
The Newar inhabit the Kathmandu Valley and make up 5.5 percent of Nepal’s population Today most of the 540,000 Newars are Hindu, and some are Buddhist. one form of Buddhism practiced by the Newari is Vajrayana Buddhism, or Tantric Buddhism. This form, usually called Newar Buddhism, is the oldest continuous form of Buddhism still practiced anywhere. it also has characteristics found only in Nepal.
Most obviously, there is no separate sangha operating in Newar Buddhism. Instead certain individuals become monks and function much as Hindu priests—that is, as individual masters, not living in a separate community of practitioners. These are members of the Vajracarya/Sakya caste. The priests help perform rite-of-passage rituals for local believers. They are married and live in temples usually constructed in the baha style.
Baha is derived from the Sanskrit term vihara, or monastery building. Most Newar baha complexes are buildings constructed around a courtyard. Today there is usually a Buddha image, called a Kapa-dya, in the center of the courtyard. This image is generally performing the earth-touching gesture with its hands. This image in most cases faces north; in no cases does it face south, which is the direction associated with Yamaraja, the lord of the underworld.
The area of the courtyard with the Kapa-dya is the public, or Mahayana, section. All other areas of the complex are secret, or Vajrayana, and therefore not open to casual entry. Today there are 363 Buddhist viharas—bahas—in the Kathmandu Valley.
Celibate monks at one time did exist in Nepal, living in temple complexes called bahis, which were distinct from the bahas. The practice of having celibate monks died out around 400 years ag°.
The cultural role of the Vajracarya priests in Newar Buddhism leads to several unique aspects. Since there is no full-fledged sangha, there is no practice of Pratimoksa/Patimokkha, the rules followed by Buddhist monks. Theravadin practitioners are often critical of this aspect. A second unique area is the performance of ritual. in particular, the Homa Yajna, a ritual using sacrificial fire, is very common in Newar Buddhism. This practice is familiar to Tantra but not found in Theravadin or Mahayana practice. Newars also practice other rituals that are not used in other cultures today.
Newar Buddhists worship a wide pantheon. But Avalokitesvara remains the most popular deity figure. There are 108 ways in which Avalok-itesvara manifests himself and is depicted in Newar art. The bodhisattva Amoghapasa Lokes-vara and the Buddha Vairocana are also common figures in Newar temples.
There is today a lack of educated monks in Newar Buddhism. There are few individuals with specialized knowledge of sutras and Buddhist history such as exist in Theravadin and Mahay-ana Buddhist cultures as in Japan or Thailand. Local practitioners as a result are not particularly respected in Nepal.
Newar Buddhism probably dates to the time of Asoka (d. 232 or 238 b.c.e.). During the late 12th century, when the great Buddhist centers of learning in india were under attack, a surge of refugees moved into Nepal, introducing another form of Buddhism, Pala Vajrayana. By the mid-1400s, when Buddhism finally died out in India, Newar Buddhism adjusted its identity to see itself as a separate tradition. The Newar texts dating from that time are in fact the last Sanskrit Buddhist sutras ever produced anywhere. These texts mix elements of Mahayana and Vajrayana thought.
A modern Nepal state was formed under Gorkha leadership from 1768. This regime was antagonistic to Buddhism. As a result many Buddhists took Hindu names, and Newar Buddhism began a long decline.
In the 20th century Buddhism in Nepal took on new life. While traditional Newar Buddhism is still practiced by the Vajracarya priests, it is a secret transmission. in contrast, a form of Newar Theravada has developed in Nepal, from the 1930s. And, since 1959, Tibetan Buddhism has been influential as many refugees entered Nepal.
Finally, Nepal’s status as a center for Western and Japanese "seekers" has added to the eclectic mix.
Two sites in Nepal are of particular importance in Newar Buddhism. The first is the stupa (caitya) of Svayambhu. The second is the Lokesvara figure at Bungamati.
New Kadampa Tradition
New Kadampa Tradition (NKT) is an international Tibetan Buddhist organization in the Gelug tradition founded in the 1970s by the Venerable Geshe Kelsang Gyatso (1931- ). He was among many Tibetan leaders who fled Tibet at the time of the Chinese takeover. In 1977, he was invited to England, where he has remained the resident teacher at the Manjushri Mahayana Buddhist Centre to the present. It was from that post that he turned the NKT into the largest Buddhist group in the United Kingdom and founded affiliated centers across Europe and North America.
The NKT’s name recalls the work of Atisa (982-1054) and his disciple Dromton (10881164), who led a revival and reformation of Buddhism in Tibet in the 11th century. The KADAMPA school they founded was eventually absorbed into the Gelug school in the 15th century. The NKT was shaped to present the authentic Tibetan teachings in a way that would communicate with a new generation of Western believers.
Soon after moving to England, Geshe Kelsang Gyatso became involved in a controversy with the Dalai Lama, the head of the Gelug school and head of the Tibetan Government-in-Exile. On July 13, 1978, Dalai Lama made a speech in which he denigrated the veneration of Dorje Shugden. Dorje Shugden is acknowledged as one of the tradition’s dharma protectors, that is, an emanation of a bodhisattva who acts to avert any obstacles that block practitioners from reaching their spiritual goals. The Dalai Lama continued to speak out against the veneration of Dorje Shugden through the 1980s and actions were taken against those in the Gelug school who continued the once-popular practice. The discussion of Dorje Shugden reached a new height in 1996, when the Dalai Lama declared the dharma protector to be an evil Chinese spirit who was blocking Tibetan independence.
At this point, many, of whom Geshe Kelsang Gyatso was the most prominent, felt that the Dalai Lama had departed from traditional faith and practice. He placed the NKT in opposition to the Dalai Lama and his leadership and became very visible when NKT members protested his 1996 visit to England. in subsequent public appearances, the Dalai Lama faced demonstrations organized by the NKT. Though the heat of the controversy has lessened, the issue continues to divide the Gelug community.
Nichiren
(1222-1282) Japanese Buddhist teacher and founder of Nichiren school of Buddhism
Nichiren, the founder of the Japanese Buddhist tradition named after him, emerged in the 13th century as an advocate of the superiority of the Lotus Sutra and the practice of calling upon the Buddha through the sutra by reciting the mantra nam-myoho-renge-kyo. Nichiren believed that nam-myoho-renge-kyo was the essence of the Lotus Sutra’s teachings.
Nichiren was born Zennichi-maro in Tojo Village, Awa Province, Japan. He was 11 when he began to study Tendai Buddhism at a nearby temple. After ordination as a monk in 1237, he moved to Kamakura. He became convinced of the central Tendai teaching that the Lotus Sutra contained the highest Buddhist teachings and hence was superior to all the other Buddhist sutras. He also gradually concluded that he was now entrusted with the mission of Bodhisattva Superior Practices, to whom the Lotus Sutra assigns the task of propagating the Dharma in the Latter Days. That task included not only touting the superiority of the Lotus Sutra but pointing out the errors of other Buddhist groups.
He launched his mission in 1253 at Seicho-ji by preaching a sermon on the Lotus Sutra and taking the name Nichiren (sun lotus). This sermon included an attack on the currently expanding practice of reciting the nembutsu (calling upon Amitabha Buddha) being advocated by the Pure Land Buddhists. Nichiren, ever direct and harsh in his criticism, was subject to an immediate reaction by local Pure Land believers and quickly left for Kamakura. Over the next several years he gained an initial following and attracted the first members of what would become an inner core of monk disciples.
In 1260 Nichiren offered a treatise, On Establishing the Correct Teaching for the Peace of the Land, to government authorities. He suggested the disasters were due to widespread slander of true Buddhism by the Pure Land Buddhist and others. When word of the content got out, an angry crowd attacked Nichiren’s dwelling and drove him from the city. When he tried to return, the shogu-nate imposed formal exile. He remained in exile on the izu Peninsula for three years.
By 1268 he was back in Kamakura and wrote a letter noting that he had eight years earlier predicted the current threatened invasion by the Mongols. When a drought hit in 1271, he publicly denounced the ability of Ryokan, a leading Shingon Buddhist in Kamakura, to have any role in ending the drought. in reaction, Nichiren was arrested and threatened with execution. in the end he was again exiled. Returning to Kamakura in 1274, he turned down an offer by the shogu-nate to set him up on an equal footing with the other Buddhist schools. in his opinion he represented superior teachings, not just another variant set of Buddhist teachings. He left Kamakura for Mt. Minobu.
At Mt. Minobu he concentrated on writing and on training the inner core of disciples. Among the most important events during these years was his inscription (1279) of the giant mandalalike Object of Worship, the GOHONZON. He dedicated it for the attainment of Buddhahood by all humanity.
After his death, the care of his tomb on Mt. Minobu occasioned a split among his disciples. One of the six, Nikko, broke with his brethren and established himself separately at a temple near Mt. Fuji. The effort of the five disciples would be carried forward by the Nichiren Shoshu. That group would in turn nurture the formation of a 20th-century lay organization, now known as Soka Gakkai International, which has in recent decades taken Nichiren’s faith into most of the world’s countries.
Nichiren Shoshu
Nichiren Shoshu is a branch of the Nichiren school, founded by one of Nichiren’s disciples, Nikko (1246-1333). After the death of Nichiren (1222-82), the six disciples he named to take charge of his movement built a tomb for their departed master on Mt. Minobu and agreed to take turns guarding it. in 1285 one of the six, Nikko, called attention to its neglect and took up residence on Mt. Minobu until a dispute with Hakii Sanenaga, a leading lay follower who was also a powerful figure in the region, forced his departure. Nikko settled near Mt. Fuji, where he built a temple, Taiseki-ji, and found some lay support. over the next years, he became alienated from the other five Nichiren leaders.
Nikko’s following became known as the Fuji school of Nichiren and through the years became the most conservative of the many divisions into which Nichiren Buddhism fell. in 1876, after the Meiji restoration, eight major temples of the Nikko lineage, including Taiseki-ji, united and formalized the establishment of what was termed the Essential Teachings school of Nichiren Buddhism. in 1899, however, Taiseki-ji withdrew from the Essential Teachings school and assumed the name Fuji branch of the Nichiren school. in 1912, this group took the name Nichiren Shoshu.
Nichiren Shoshu was a relatively small Nichi-ren group when in 1930, two lay converts, Tsunesaburo Makiguchi (1871-1944) and Josei Toda (1900-58), founded an education-oriented lay society called Soka Kyoiku Gakkai (Value-Creating Education Society). Makiguchi and Toda ran into conflict with the demands of the Japanese government as World War ii began and eventually were arrested. Makiguchi died in prison, but Toda survived the war and began the rebuilding of Soka Gakkai, which became a large international organization through the last half of the 20th century. As Soka Gakkai grew, so did Nichiren Shoshu, which founded a number of temples in countries such as the United States where Soka Gakkai had great success. While most Soka Gakkai members had little to do with temple worship, the Nichiren Shoshu priests performed an essential role by supplying replicas of the Gohonzon, the Object of Worship, to them.
in the late 1980s, the leadership of Nichiren Shoshu and what had by this time become Soka Gakkai International (SGI), came into conflict. SGI had been a controversial organization, as tension emerged from its high-pressure recruitment tactics, while most of its members did not show any loyalty to the priestly leadership of Nichiren Shoshu. As the conflict continued, the charges made by each side against the other multiplied. The issues climaxed in 1991 when the head of the Nichiren Shoshu excommunicated the international president, Daisaku Ikeda (1928- ) and the SGi leadership. Subsequently, the two organizations went their separate ways.
Signpost for Nichiren Shoshu Myosen-ji, Silver Spring, Maryland (Institute for the Study of American Religion, Santa Barbara, California)
As the dust settled from the break between SGI and Nichiren Shoshu, the latter found itself with some 700 temples in Japan and 21 temples and outreach centers outside the country, including six temples in the United States.
