Geoscience Reference
In-Depth Information
transport network and communication infrastructure.
This can be illustrated most effectively by comparing
the response and impact of tropical cyclones for
three countries: Australia, the United States, and
Bangladesh.
Imp
act and response
(Burton et al., 1978; Simpson & Riehl, 1981; The Disaster
Center, 1998)
The human impact of cyclones can be assessed in
terms of deaths, financial damage, reliance upon
international aid, and the prospects of further impov-
erishment. The response to cyclones depends mainly
on these four factors. Deaths due to cyclones in the
United States decreased dramatically in the twentieth
century to fewer than a 100 people per year, mainly
because of a policy of total evacuation together with
earlier warning systems. Costs, on the other hand, have
increased considerably - as illustrated by Hurricane
Andrew - because of the escalating development in
cyclone-prone areas after the Second World War. Of
course, the damage bill from a tropical cyclone also
depends upon the type of building construction.
Cyclone Tracy - the most destructive cyclone experi-
enced in Australia - destroyed only 10 per cent of the
value of infrastructure in Darwin. While most houses
were damaged or destroyed, larger commercial and
public buildings with a high capital investment were
not badly damaged. Other non-residential buildings
were mildly affected because they had to comply with
strict building codes formulated to minimize the effect
of cyclone winds.
The impact of cyclones goes far beyond just deaths
and building damage. In developing countries,
destruction of infrastructure and primary agriculture
can lead to a decrease in exports and gross national
product, while increasing the likelihood of forfeiture of
international loan repayments. Figure 3.1 indicates
that cyclones can cause increased soil salinity
through storm-surge inundation, an effect that can
have long-term economic consequences for agricul-
tural production - with such consequences virtually
immeasurable in monetary terms. Contamination of
water supplies and destruction of crops can also lead to
disease and starvation. In fact, some of the large death
tolls caused by cyclones on the Indian subcontinent in
the nineteenth century were due to starvation after-
wards. In certain cases, the destruction of crops can
affect international commodity markets. For example,
Hurricane Flora's passage over Cuba in 1963 wiped out
the sugar cane crop and sent world sugar prices
soaring. Of all hazard events, the effects of tropical
cyclones differ substantially from each other depend-
ing upon the development of a country's economy,
Australia
(Australian Bureau of Meteorology, 1977; Western & Milne,
1979)
One of the effects of tropical cyclones not covered in
Figure 3.1 is long-term human suffering caused by
dislocation. Studies of hazards where people are
dispossessed indicate that the incidence of psycho-
somatic illness (illness, such as by anxiety, induced by
changes in mental well-being) increases afterwards.
More importantly, people who have lost a relative
recover more completely than people who have lost
the family home. A death can be mourned during a
funeral occurring within several days, but a family
home has to be rebuilt over months or years. Australia
has experienced this phenomenon on a large scale. In
northern coastal Australia, it is accepted that cyclones
will inevitably occur. Evacuation is normally not
encouraged except for the most hazardous areas next
to the ocean. Strict building codes have been estab-
lished to minimize damage and loss of life. Such codes
are policed and adhered to. A network of remote-
controlled, satellite and staffed stations has been
established to detect and track cyclones. These
observations are continually reported over radio and
television if a cyclone is imminent. Some criticism has
been expressed regarding the Australian Bureau of
Meteorology's inability to predict the landfall of all
cyclones, and there is some fear that the staffed
stations are being run down as a cost saving measure.
However, it should be realized that tropical cyclones
in Australia, as elsewhere, often travel unpredictably.
Residents have been instructed on how to prepare and
weather a cyclone. For example, most people upon
hearing about the forecast arrival of a cyclone will
remove loose objects in the house and yard that can
become missiles in strong winds, will tape windows,
and will store at least three days' supply of water and
food.
Cyclone Tracy, which struck Darwin on 25 December
1974, demonstrated that apathy can negate all these
preventative procedures. The cyclone also led to large-
scale psychological damage that cannot be measured in
economic terms. Despite three days of warnings, and
