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reduce service in another. Integrated systems analysis should be conducted to deter-
mine the robustness and resilience of interdependent infrastructure services.
Many studies have demonstrated the impacts that climate change can have on the na-
tion's infrastructure. Identifying the costs of these direct impacts is a crucial research
need but tells only part of the story. The full scope of costs goes far beyond the actual
damage to infrastructure. Recognizing the full costs of climate impacts is critical to the ac-
curate identification of reasonable adaptation costs in order to avoid disruptive impacts.
The loss of or damage to infrastructure due to a natural disaster, whether a trans-
portation, energy, water supply and wastewater/drainage, communications, or other
structure, usually makes headlines. Such a loss can cost millions of dollars to replace or
repair, or otherwise drain operating or maintenance budgets. Direct losses incurred by
Hurricane Andrew in 1992 were estimated at $30 billion (NRC, 2009). Hurricane Katrina
caused damages of $145 billion. In 2011 drought, heat waves, and wildfires damaged
homes, agricultural and other structures across Texas, Oklahoma, New Mexico, Arizona,
southern Kansas, and western Arkansas and Louisiana with combined losses over $10.0
billion (Haveman and Shaz, 2006). Note that these estimates are based on the value of
the dollar at the time of the events.
Just as critical is the loss of service that the infrastructure and its operation provide
to the economy, health, ecosystem and quality of life of American citizens. When infra-
structure is damaged, it can affect people and communities in a variety of ways. Work-
ers may not be able to get to their jobs resulting in lost wages. Businesses may close or
lose sales with a loss of power. Supply chains can be disrupted causing shortages of
goods and materials and can cause cascading “ripple” effects through the economy. Ac-
cess to hospitals and loved ones may become more difficult or impossible with a loss of
critical infrastructure.
The National Research Council noted in 1999 that these monetary and non-monetary
losses are much more difficult to estimate, but a few examples are illustrative. The Port
of Long Beach estimated the total cost of a 15-day closure to be $4.3 billion with no physi-
cal damages. In the winter of 2007-2008, Washington state's budget for maintenance had
to be increased by $9 million to cover snow removal and related costs, but total eco-
nomic losses were estimated as almost $75 million (Freight Transportation Economic
Impact Assessment Report, 2008). And since 1936, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers has
invested more than $120 Billion in flood control projects which have estimated benefit to
the economy in those areas of $706 billion (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 2009). These
examples indicate that the direct costs of infrastructure damage represent only a fraction
of the total economic impact of infrastructure service disruptions.
As we are adapted to our environment as it exists today, a changing climate has great
potential to significantly affect the people, activities and even the geography of urban
locations. It will do so by changing the natural environment through rising seas, more
intensive storms, increased heat waves and other effects which change the landscape,
damage the infrastructure of the built environment and disrupt critical services of urban
areas. If appropriate adaptive measures are not taken, the end result of these disruptions
will be reduced economic activity, health and quality of life.
Far from acting independently, service providers depend on each other to fulfill their
roles (O'Rourke, 2007). The provision of energy, for example, generally depends not
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