Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
concentrations of DEHP = 2 × 10
6
mg/m
3
and BBP = 7700 mg/m
3
in the
vehicle interior (Fujii et al., 2003)! These numbers are several times higher
than even the acceptable 'safe' inhaled levels though passengers are exposed
to these levels only for short durations. High levels of phthalates in paints,
modeling clay, and adhesives (~50,000 mg/kg) used as building products
as well as other products such as air fresheners (15,000-500,000 mg/kg)
(Versar, Inc. and Syracuse Research Corporation, 2010) might be released
into indoor environments (Fujii et al., 2003).
More recent works estimate the adult daily intake to range from 4.9 to 18
µg/kg body weight. Regardless of age group, 50-98% of this DEHP intake is
believedtobefromfood(Wormuthetal.,2006).Phthalatesinindoorairare
primarily derived from outgassing of vinyl floor coverings, wall coverings,
and other building materials.
7.3.2 Toxicity of Phthalates
Of the common phthalates, BBP, DEHP, and DBP elicit the highest toxicity
to terrestrial organisms, fish, and aquatic invertebrates (European
Commission, 2008). It is the ED characteristics of phthalates (rather than
their low acute toxicity or mutagenicity) that are of major concern. In
common with other EDCs, the dose-response curves for biological effects
of phthalates can also be non-monotonic (Andrade et al., 2006). Therefore,
as with BPA, conventional toxicological screening can often be inadequate
in establishing reference doses at which adverse outcomes are possible.
Phthalates with linear-ester side chains with 4-6 carbons were particularly
associated with the phthalate syndrome (changes in reproductive function
and fetal development) in animal models. Ohtani et al. (2000) found
adverse effectsofDBPonthedifferentiation ofmale gonads in
Ranarugosa
tadpoles.
Fetal or infant exposure to phthalates was shown to be associated with
reproductive or developmental health outcomes in males (e.g., correlation
with shortened anogenital distance (Swan, 2006) or premature breast
development (Colon et al., 2000)). Positive associations between phthalate
metabolites in urine and symptoms of ADHD (Kim et al., 2009) as well as
phthalate exposure and asthma or allergy (Bornehag et al., 2004) among
school-age children have been reported.
The major health impacts of phthalates supported by recent studies and
showing an association significant at
p
> 0.05 were summarized by Meeker
