Collaborative Learning - Information Communication Technologies for Human Services Education and Delivery - page 42

part of that group to meet personal needs. These
concepts form part of group work practice in
human services, team work in organizations and
teaching in higher education.
Teachers in higher education have a choice
about how they structure student learning. It can
be individualistic where students work alone
and strive for personal success or a competitive
situation where they battle against each other
for good grades. The other possibility is to work
collaboratively so students can achieve common
goals (Johnson, Johnson, Holubec and Roy, 1984).
Given the practice orientation of social work
education, this collaborative goal is preferred.
Collaborative learning groups are based on fun-
damental group work concepts. These concepts
have been developed by Johnson, Johnson and
Smith (1991) and include:

will act in trustworthy ways (Johnson, Johnson and
Smith, 1991, p.7). It is these characteristics which
are essential in the design of online learning.
Groups go through stages of development. In
the 1960s, Tuckman outlined four group stages:
forming, storming, norming and performing. Later
he added adjourning (Smith, 2005).Although these
stages are described in a linear manner, they are
less clear cut in practice. In each of these stages,
group members and leaders have particular tasks.
This also applies to teachers running collabora-
tive groups. Tuckman was writing about face to
face interaction, but these stages also appear in
online groups.
In the forming stage, participants are inclined
to behave independently, get to know others in
the group and test relationships. At the outset,
teachers must be clear about the learning tasks
and instructions and provide clear directions. In
the storming stage, the real work of the group has
begun. Students begin to polarize around issues.
Conflict is apparent and the group interactions
are often emotionally laden. Some members often
resist the group dynamics. In this stage, the teacher
notices that everyone has a different idea of the
task or some may evade the work. Clarity about
tasks remains important. By the time norming is
reached the group members have developed trust
and are acquainted with the learning requirements.
Students participate and take responsibility for the
activities. New standards for working together are
likely to develop and new roles adopted. At this
stage the teacher can stand back and watch care-
fully from the sidelines. The development of neti-
quette (see case study) is an important part of group
formation and norming with netiquette standards
assisting in managing difficult interactions. In the
final stage the group works collaboratively with
structural and procedural issues being resolved.
The group makes the decisions.
In any group, there is differentiation in the roles
people play. In formal groups, some members have
designated roles and assigned tasks. In other groups,

• positive interdependence

• face to face promotive interaction

• individual accountability

• social skills

• group processing

At the time these concepts were elaborated, the
Internet was not widely used for teaching and face
to face teaching was the norm. With the develop-
ment of online learning face to face interactions
in one physical location were not possible. With
further development of the technology, webcasting
became available so that students can see each other
when communicating synchronistically. Johnson
et al expanded and qualified the concept of face
to face interaction with that of “promotive interac-
tion.” Accordingly group members provide each
other with help and assistance and the exchange of
resources within the group. Participants' process
information quickly, providing feedback to improve
performance and challenge the conclusions reached
by group members. Within the group, advocacy for
group goals will occur with all members influenc-
ing others to achieve these. Above all, the group