Agriculture Reference
In-Depth Information
of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM), Marine Stewardship Council (MSC),
Rainforest Alliance, UTZ Certified, and 4C Association.
Given the increasing use of certification within alternative agrifood initiatives,
this chapter examines how certification affects the principles, practices, and goals
of alternative food and agriculture. While there is a significant body of literature on
the contexts, aims, and forms of alternative food and agriculture, understudied is
the ways that governance potentially impacts the character of alternative food and
agriculture, such as its values and objectives. Addressing this gap in the literature,
this chapter examines changes in a sustainable shrimp project in Indonesia that
occurred with organic certification.
The sustainable shrimp project began in 1992 and connected Japanese con-
sumer cooperatives (co-op) members with Indonesian shrimp farmers interested in
sustainable aquaculture. Initially, democratic and shared governance, as well as a
high degree of trust between shrimp farmers and co-op members characterized the
project. Thus, developing respect for each other's position and needs was an integral
component of the project. However, in 2002, with organic certification, formal
standards, measures, and audits were introduced into the project. Consequently,
my findings indicate that notions of objectivity, calculability, and expert knowledge
began to replace the emphasis on shared governance, mutual understanding, and
trust. The result has been the increased rationalization of the project and de-
personalization of relations between project participants, most notably Indonesian
farmers and Japanese co-op members.
Data on the organic shrimp project was gathered using two extensive field
research site visits in 2004 and 2008. A total of 125 interviews were conducted with
actors involved in shrimp farming in the region, including certified and non-certified
shrimp farmers, certified and non-certified warehouse owners, project managers and
organizers, hatchery owners, social movement organizations, national and regional
government officials, and aquaculture specialists. Additionally, members from the
Japanese consumer co-ops were also interviewed during both visits. In 2004, data
was collected on the origins of the shrimp project, views of certification, the
potential implications of the project, and the relationship among different actors
associated with the project. In follow-up research in 2008, key informants were
re-interviewed to understand the ways that the implementation of the project had
progressed and changes in understandings of the project. Both sets of interview
data were also supplemented by participant observation whenever possible, which
focused on the interactions between actors in the project. Lastly, content analysis
of archival data on shrimp aquaculture, alternative food and agriculture, and
certification from websites, newsletters, and reports by Japanese co-operatives,
transnational organizations, such as the Food and Agriculture Organization, national
and international non-governmental organizations, and certification bodies was
undertaken.
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To maintain confidentiality, the identity of the companies involved in the organic shrimp project,
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