Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
systems, both for their intrinsic value and for the services that restored ecosystems may
provide, such as the retention and overall reduction of nitrogen to downstream areas.
Restored ecosystems are likely to be subject to ongoing human influence, through
management in support of restoration practices or through exposure to continued
environmental pressures. Opportunities for interdisciplinary socio-ecological research
and for feedback of research into adaptive management (
Norton 2005
) are therefore
plentiful. By partnering with these expert groups, ecosystem scientists can provide and
receive valuable information and contribute to designing, monitoring, and evaluating
restoration practices.
CONCEPTUAL ADVANCES
In 1661, Robert Boyle published The Sceptical Chymist, in which he introduced a bright
idea: matter was composed of many different corpuscles (atoms), rather than the classic
elements (air, earth, fire, and water). This original idea, the precursor of modern atomic
theory, has inspired scientists since its appearance, and was the seed of countless advances
in our ability to understand the world. Similarly, in the nineteenth century, Charles
Darwin's theory of evolution marked a critical break from the concept of fixed species in
biology. This conceptual shift in the way we understand the species opened new avenues
that scientists have used to explore and better understand the world of living organisms,
at scales from genes to species. Conceptual advances change the way we think and see the
world, and in doing so, catalyze new discoveries. Here we discuss changing views on two
long-standing concepts that have the potential to advance ecosystem science: the role of
humans in ecosystems and the question and treatment of scale.
Integration of Humans into Ecosystems
Tansley's (1935)
original conception of ecosystems is still widely used, and although its
applicability has been contested on occasion (see Chapter 1), it has been adapted to
support a broad variety of uses. One adaptation is the gradual assimilation of humans as
an integral part of ecosystems. During the Age of Enlightenment, humans were considered
separate from nature and this perception prevailed in the Western thought for some time.
However, the separation between nature and society was questioned in many different
disciplines during the twentieth century. Ecosystem science originally focused its attention
on “pristine” systems and models correspondingly excluded humans (
Figure 17.2
a,b). The
incorporation of humans went through a stage in which social and ecological systems
were viewed as linked, but separate domains. That is, humans were typically represented
as forces influencing ecosystems from the outside, mainly as stressors pushing the system
out of equilibrium (
Figure 17.2
c). More recently, the concept of human-in-ecosystems
(
Berkes et al. 2003
) or the “dwelling perspective” (
Ingold 2000
) represents a movement
toward consideration of the mutual influences of ecological and social processes. This per-
spective recognizes that ecosystems truly devoid of human influence or manipulation are
