Travel Reference
In-Depth Information
festivals, which are the basis of many societies. This may lead to a disruption
of communal life (McCarthy, 1994). Also, the selling of ancestral land, vol-
untarily or by coercion, for the purpose of tourism development causes prob-
lems of ownership, relocation of sacred land and displacement of local
populations (McCarthy, 1994; Patterson, 1993).
Migration through tourism can be categorised into two groups: leisure
migration (Tomljenovic & Faulkner, 2000), especially of retired people, and
migration of labour. Leisure migration tends to be less significant in terms
of effects on local labour markets, and as tourists and retirees migrate semi-
permanently to enclaves or reserved areas, it contributes to the income of
these areas. On the other hand, migration of labour due to tourism has a
significant influence on local labour markets and economic leakage, and it
is widely studied. Anderson (1988) noted labour migration in the Caribbean
Basin, and Szivas and Riley (1998) found highly educated human resources
in tourism-related businesses in Hungary. Although most tourism jobs are
low-paid, menial jobs, in nations/regions where the unemployment rate is
high or where such labourers as farmers and fisher-persons are barely surviv-
ing, tourism jobs are so attractive that many individuals migrate to tourist
destination areas. Young people, especially young men, are drawn to devel-
oped tourist areas where Western consumption styles represent the promise
of a 'better life' (Dahles, 2000). In some cases, such as Bali, tourism employ-
ment is associated with high incomes and high status occupations (Cukier,
2002). Migration of labour is not only displacing workforces in rural and
peripheral areas, but it is also destroying family structure as usually one or
two family members leave their hometown to seek jobs in tourist areas.
Sudden increases in population add pressure to tourist destination areas and
vicinities, raising issues of employment, low-income housing, welfare insur-
ance, food-sufficiency, health issues and numerous other social issues.
Especially where tourism jobs are heavily influenced by seasonality, unem-
ployment during the low seasons becomes a serious problem. These increases
in population through the movement of labour migrants and through tour-
ist influxes generate additional pressures and arguably have a negative
impact on the quality of life of host population. In a yet unproven model,
Doxey (1976) suggested that attitudes of local residents towards increases
in tourism (e.g. the number of tourists, infrastructure and facilities, migrant
labour, etc.) often becomes progressively more negative.
Migration of labour itself is not the only issue related to drawing individu-
als closer to tourist areas. It also potentially results in an increase in crime,
drugs, terrorism and prostitution, as often happens in developed urban zones.
Crimes targeting tourists, such as pickpocketing, mugging, deception in busi-
ness, illegal business, sexual and physical assaults, and in some cases murders
and other crimes are almost daily news topics in some fairly developed desti-
nation areas. Airports in Florida, for example, offer information leaflets for
tourists regarding how to protect themselves from crime. Many destinations
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