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modernisation theories focus on non-Western factors in poorer nations that
prevent them from becoming wealthy like a Western nation (Mapp, 2008).
In his critique, Peet (1999) interprets Rostow's stages of economic growth as
suggesting that traditional societies should 'copy the already proven exam-
ples of the West' and, in order to help out, the 'West will provide armies of
modernisers'. Rostow's other suggestion is that 'backward societies' ought to
accept US aid and investment (Peet, 1999: 83).
Rostow's stages of economic growth model is based on the assumption
that there is a universal process of modernisation. Likewise, the concept of
development widely employed today is based on a fundamental assumption
that every nation in the world should follow the model of the West.
According to Peet (1999: 85-86), the four points of 'development' are based
on assuming:
(1) The mental model of the West (rationalisation);
(2) The institutions of the West (the market);
(3) The goals of the West (high-mass consumption);
(4) Culture of the West (worship of the commodity).
These assumptions are the backbone of much of the development theory
discussed in this topic. Although the development theories themselves are
sound and conceptually significant, the underlying assumptions of the theo-
ries can however be a cause of concern. Measurements of the quality of life
or level of economic development are always examined against indices that
are a reflection of the Euro-American standard of development. The develop-
ment measurement assumes that the same economic and social systems
work perfectly in various nations.
This assumption of homogeneity leads to other shortcomings of current
development theories. Within the universalist tradition, development theo-
ries apply a single superior standard, which happens to be Western societies'
set of values, to the rest of the world. By applying this standard to non-Euro-
American nations, difficulty arises in making sense of what has been
observed (or measured). As interpretation of the unknown has to be derived
from known culture, experience and intellectual tradition (in this case,
Euro-American tradition), what is really operative in a non-Euro-American
context is often misunderstood. Instead, an illusion as to what is not working
in a given locale will be created to facilitate 'comprehension' of the observed
phenomena (Bond, 1991; Calhoun, 1995; Pick & Pick Jr., 1978; Wuelker,
1993). For instance, Western philosophies are often described as unidirec-
tional and linear while Eastern philosophies are often described as circular.
The Western idea of development adopts a starting point and progresses over
time, but this idea does not openly suggest that the process could be reversed
(to regress) or come back to the starting point. Meanwhile, Eastern philoso-
phies suggest that the process is circular and will eventually return to the
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