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starting point; therefore, the process is endless. To measure the circular con-
cept of development in the East using the linear metric of development of the
West requires a great deal of imagination or a drastic change in world-view.
However, by the end of the 1990s, it became clear that the process of
globalisation is enriching a handful of dominant actors (states or MNEs) in
the global market and further impoverishing the most vulnerable, rather
than providing equal opportunities to every participating actor. Amartya
Sen's Development as Freedom in 1999 inspired the idea of human develop-
ment, which consequently led to a shift in economy-based development phi-
losophies to human rights-based development philosophies (Eide, 2006; see
Chapter 13). When the 1986 UN Declaration of the Right to Development
was adopted, the US was the only country that dissented; however, in the
1993 Vienna Second UN World Conference on Human Rights, which confir-
med every person's right to development as a human right, the US fully
supported the idea (Sengupta, 2007). The UN's adoption of sustainable devel-
opment and greater focusing on human development also indicates a revival
of a social-development approach, emphasising that economic development
and social development must occur simultaneously (Mapp, 2008; Midgeley,
1995). While some critics, such as George and Varghese (2007), are concerned
about whether or not sustainable development is placing too much emphasis
on the environment and economy, the social development approach empha-
sises, in line with the human rights-based development approach, empower-
ment, improvement of social conditions, building macro-level capacity
within clients and prevention of problems rather than remedial aid and relief
(Mapp, 2008). Osmani (2006) sees that the human rights-based development
approach will counterbalance disproportional inequalities between and
within nations as it focuses on groups of individuals that are vulnerable,
marginalised, disadvantaged or socially excluded. At the 2004 Shanghai
Conference on poverty reduction, then World Bank President Wolfensohn
declared that the Washington Consensus (economy-based development with
a neoliberal agenda) was dead (Eide, 2006; Maxwell, 2005).
While some, such as Maxwell (2005), encourage a modified orthodox
development paradigm, or 'meta narrative', which forms the over-arching
framework of the UN Millennium Development Goals, others embrace the
human rights-based approach. The human rights-based approach to develop-
ment must not be considered 'value added' in terms of the orthodox develop-
ment paradigm; instead, it requires a fundamental 'value change' (Eide,
2006). The principles of the right to development represent 'equality, non-
discrimination, participation, transparency and accountability, as well as
international cooperation' (Pillay, 2011). In other words, development must
be people-centred and what needs to be developed varies vastly from one
nation to another or even from a region in a nation to another region. By
applying the human rights-based approach, development can alleviate
'distorted development' (Midgeley, 1995: 4) or globalisation effects on
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