Conclusion - Tissue Functioning and Remodeling in the Circulatory and Ventilatory Systems - page 804

Table 14.3. Receptors of the sympathetic postganglionic neurons (Vol. 3 - Chap. 7. G-Protein-
Coupled Receptors).

Type Effect

Cardiovascular apparatus

α 1a GPCR Positive inotropy

Vasoconstriction

α

1b GPCR Positive inotropy

Vasoconstriction

α

1d GPCR Vasoconstriction

α 2a GPCR Sympathetic output reduction

α 2b GPCR Vasoconstriction

α 2c GPCR Venoconstriction

β 1 GPCR Positive bathmotropy, chronotropy,

dromotropy, inotropy, lusitropy

β 2 GPCR Positive inotropy, lusitropy

β 3 GPCR Negative inotropy

Respiratory apparatus

α

1 GPCR Bronchoconstriction (minor contribution)

β 2 GPCR Bronchodilation (major contribution)

Adrenal medulla

Nicotinic receptor Secretion of adrenaline and noradrenaline

(ion channel) (preganglionic neuron)

Kidney (juxtaglomerular apparatus)

β 1 GPCR Secretion of renin

Liver

α 1 GPCR Glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis

β 2 GPCR Glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis

Adipose tissue

β

1/3 GPCR Increased lipolysis

phenomenological models of nano- and microscale events and, on the other hand,
virtual physiology that results from cell signaling with its spatiotemporal fine-tuned
regulation.
However, grant programs have been launched to promote and support research
networks that propose innovative, interdisciplinary approaches with a four-stage
philosophy: conception, development, implementation, and optimization. Research
programs are commonly based on multiscale approaches (from genes, proteins
and other molecule types, cells, tissues, organs, and organisms), i.e., at different
biological scales involved in structure-function relations.
Biological organization at the nanoscopic scale relies on intermolecular inter-
actions, especially those participating in gene transcription regulation and sig-
nal transduction. Cell signaling pathways determine cell fate, thereby governing
structure-function relations at the tissue, organ, and body scales.