Biomarkers of Cardiovascular Disorders - Applications of Biotechnology in Cardiovascular Therapeutics - page 93

Table 4.1 Classification of biomarkers for cardiovascular diseases
Genetic biomarkers for heart disease
IL-1 gene variations
Polymorphisms in the apolipoprotein E (APOE) gene
Mutations in the low density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor gene
Mutations within several genes that code for ion channel
Polymorphism in the angiotensinogen gene promoter
Biomarkers for ischemic heart disease and acute myocardial infarction (AMI)
Acute phase reactants: C reactive protein (CRP)
Biomarkers of myocardial dysfunction: natriuretic peptide
Biomarkers of myocardial infarction: troponins, creatine kinase (muscle brain), myoglobin, copeptin
Citric acid pathway metabolites
Copeptin
Cripto-1
Fatty acid binding protein
Fetuin-A
High density lipoprotein 2 (HDL 2 )
Inflammatory cytokines: IL-6 and TNF-a
Markers of ischemia: choline, ischemia-modified albumin, unbound free fatty acids
Plaque destabilization: intercellular adhesion molecules, vascular adhesion molecules, metalloproteinase-9
Plaque rupture: Soluble CD40 ligand, placental growth factor
Biomarkers for heart failure
Angiogenesis biomarkers of coronary heart disease with asymptomatic left ventricle dysfunction
Beta-2a protein
Biomarkers of inflammation: galectin-3, C reactive protein, TNF-a, Fas (APO-1), IL-1, IL-6, IL-18
Desmin
G protein-coupled receptor kinase-2
MMP-CV2: microparticle protein biomarker of ischemic cardiac failure
Myocyte stress: natriuretic peptide, midregional fragment of proadrenomedullin, ST2
Neurohormones: norepinephrine, renin, angiotensin II, aldosterone, arginine vasopressin, endothelin
Oxidative stress: oxidized LDLs, myeloperoxidase, urinary biopyrrins, plasma malondialdehyde
Urinary and plasma isoprostanes
Biomarkers of risk factors for coronary heart disease
Biomarkers of inflammation: C-reactive protein (CRP) and fibrinogen
Biomarkers of oxidative damage: endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs)
Plasma apolipoprotein AI and B levels
Biomarkers for atherosclerosis
Adipocyte enhancer-binding protein 1
Asymmetric dimethylarginine (an endogenous nitric oxide synthaseinhibitor)
Cathepsin D
E-selectin
Ghrelin
HSP-27 (low levels)
Lipid-modified proteins
Lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2
Macrophages chemoattraction
Nitric oxide: impairment of production
Oxidative stress
Serum amyloid A
T-cell chemokine activity
Imaging biomarkers of cardiovascular disease
Miscellaneous : chromogranin, osteoprotegerin, adiponectin, growth differentiation factor 15, lens aging
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