Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
CHP penetration, location and inclusion of thermal storage capacity;
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PHEV penetration, location and batteries' state of charge;
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Costs and emissions derived from delivering energy to end-users.
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Consequently, by modelling some basic elements in a future urban energy sys-
tem, the TCOPF can begin to act as an intermediary entity that communicates and
manages the interactions between grid operators and DER devices available. These
operating decisions are made according to the TCOPF objective function which in
turn responds to the state condition of the grid and of the connected embedded tech-
nologies. Thereupon, in this research the optimal power flow program can be viewed
as a body that enables DSM and/or demand response strategies; hence, it is inherently
similar to the responsibilities carried out by an energy service provider.
Because many terms concerning smart-grids are in vogue, particularly in power
systems, it is important for the sake of clarity to narrow the scope of these in this text.
Energy service providers
are businesses that aim to work with industrial, com-
mercial and residential consumers - in both private and public sectors - offering a wide
range of comprehensive energy solutions that include billing, generation, supply, con-
servation, management and maintenance. These services are provided in coordination
with grid operators, energy markets and regulators [30].
Demand side management
comprises initiatives that focus on modifying the
energy demand of end-users with the objective to reduce costs usually via smart
controls through energy efficiency or conservation programs [31].
Demand response
refers to changes in electricity usage by end-use customers
from their normal consumption patterns in response to changes in the price of elec-
tricity over time, or to incentive payments designed to induce lower electricity use
at times of high wholesale market prices or when system reliability is jeopardised
[32,33].
It will take time for utilities to adopt the services described above and which
are key to implement a smart-grid. Still, clear components to make this concept a
reality are the more sophisticated measurement, monitoring and controls needed to
employ the flexible sources available within the energy system. Table 1.6 encom-
passes different technology areas that can impact energy infrastructures with their
combination of hardware and software solutions [34].
Table 1.6
Smart-grid technologies
Technology area
Hardware
Software
Wide area monitoring
PMU and other sensors
SCADA
IT integration
Routers, servers, etc.
Resource planning
DER integration
Power conditioning
Energy management
Transmission enhancement
FACTS
Stability and recovery
Distribution management
Switches, sensors, etc.
GIS and DMS
Advanced metering
Smart meter
MDMS
EV charging
Infrastructure
G2V and V2G
Customer-side systems
Smart appliances and BMS
Energy dashboards
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