Geography Reference
In-Depth Information
and EEZ boundaries, on the other hand, are to be
drawn 'by agreement on the basis of international
law…in order to achieve an equitable solution'
(UNCLOS 1982, Articles 74 and 83), which may
or may not mean an equidistance line.
Congo River (Angola-Democratic Republic of
Congo, formerly Zaire), where the international
boundary follows the navigation channel under
an agreement of 1891. Figure 26.1 shows the
extent of the changes in the navigation channel
between 1960 and 1977, raising questions as to
the ownership of islands that find themselves on
one side and then the other side of the boundary.
Many other positional questions are raised by
river boundaries, including finding the midpoint,
the fastest stream, or the deepest water, all of
which have been used to locate international
boundaries. Positional disputes also occur in a
variety of other circumstances, especially where
boundary demarcation has not taken place.
Problems can also arise after demarcation if
boundary markers are removed or destroyed. In
recent years, the use of GPS has facilitated the
resolution of such disputes, but it has also
revealed a number of incorrectly located
boundaries, resulting in low-level disputes.
WHY BOUNDARY DISPUTES OCCUR
ON
LAND
There is a considerable volume of literature on
the causes and consequences of land boundary
disputes, to which geographers have made a
significant contribution, particularly in the
reporting of individual cases. Although the
subject has been explored by scholars for a
century or more, there is still no useful theory as
to why boundary disputes occur. Part of the
problem is their sheer diversity through time and
across space. Another difficulty is distinguishing
between the underlying and the immediate
causes of a dispute. Furthermore, in many cases
tension at the state boundary is symptomatic of
the relationship between neighbours, and the
boundary is not the real substance of their
quarrel: 'a boundary, like the human skin, may
have diseases of its own or may reflect the
illnesses of the body' (Jones 1945: p. 3). These
factors make simple explanations of boundary
disputes both difficult and potentially misleading.
Most disputes comprise a number of ingredients,
and it is not always clear which are the most
important.
Territorial disputes
The distinction between positional and territorial
disputes is primarily a matter of scale. Because so
much more is at stake, the risk of serious conflict
is greater. States may lay claim to the territory of
another state for many reasons. A major category
of motives is
geopolitical
. Territory may be needed
to ensure access to the sea, or to give control of a
strategic location, or to deprive a hostile
neighbour of a vital road or rail link. Campaigns
have been fought in the Middle East and in
southeast Europe for these reasons in the past
thirty years. Territorial disputes also occur quite
commonly because peoples of the same ethnic
background are divided by the international
boundary. Figure 26.2 illustrates typical cases
where
divided ethnic groups
seek independence, or
wish to secede to a neighbouring state. There are
perhaps between 6000 and 9000 'suppressed
nationalisms' in the world today, many of which
are in or near borderlands, and they are likely to
be more influential in defining the shape of
tomorrow's world political map (Griggs and
Hocknell 1995: pp. 49-58). Disputes that feature
Positional disputes
When the precise location of a boundary is in
doubt, it is known as a positional problem. Such
disputes can occur for a number of reasons. River
boundaries are notorious for positional disputes,
especially in areas where the course of the river
or the main navigation channel shifts with
natural physical processes. The Rio Grande
(Mexico-United States) proved to be a most
inconvenient international boundary because of
marked changes in its course during the
nineteenth century. A modern example is the
