Geography Reference
In-Depth Information
State boundaries extend vertically into the air to
an undefined height, and vertically into the Earth,
where they define ownership of resources, to
unlimited depth. Although many boundaries are
marked by complex systems of barbed wire and
other obstacles sometimes several metres wide, the
boundary itself is a line of no width. Where two
boundaries meet, the result is a precise point. With
the availability of global positioning systems (GPS),
boundaries can be fixed with great accuracy, and
territories allocated with precision. Strictly
speaking, there are therefore few frontiers (or zones
of transition) between states as boundaries are
delimited and demarcated more accurately.
Geographers like to distinguish between frontiers
and boundaries, but the terms are commonly
regarded as synonymous, not least by the eminent
boundary scholar S.W.Boggs (1940).
visible, nor do they affect the everyday lives of
people to such an extent. There are three kinds of
maritime boundary. First, adjacent boundaries, which
start from the land boundary terminus, 160 of
which reach the coast worldwide. Second, opposite
boundaries are those between opposite states in
enclosed and semi-enclosed seas. Third, there are
boundaries between coastal state jurisdiction and
the international seabed beyond. This is primarily
determined by a 200-nautical-mile limit (1
nautical mile = 1.15 statute miles or 1.852 km)
measured from the baseline along the coast, but
some twenty-two states are also entitled to claim
continental shelf beyond 200 miles in accordance
with Article 76 of UNCLOS 1982 (Prescott 1996:
pp. 51-82).
The legal functions of maritime boundaries are
more varied than for land boundaries, which
define absolute state sovereignty. Within the
territorial sea to a maximum distance of twelve
nautical miles state sovereignty is absolute, except
that ships of other states are entitled to innocent
passage (UNCLOS 1982, Article 17). Beyond
twelve miles to a distance of 200 nautical miles is
the exclusive economic zone (or EEZ), in which the
coastal state enjoys exclusive rights to living and
non-living resources (UNCLOS 1982, Article 56).
States also have the exclusive right to the resources
of their continental shelves, including notably
hydrocarbons, minerals and bottom-dwelling
marine life (UNCLOS 1982, Article 77). In theory,
therefore, a coastal state may have maritime
boundary agreements with neighbouring states in
respect of territorial sea and/or continental shelf
and EEZ. In practice, most modern maritime
boundary agreements are 'all-purpose'
boundaries, rather confusingly referred to as
'single maritime boundaries'.
In spite of their complexity, maritime
boundaries have one advantage over land
boundaries in that UNCLOS offers some
guidelines for boundary delimitation. For
territorial sea boundaries, there is a presumption
that the line will be equidistant between the
parties' coasts (UNCLOS 1982, Article 15) unless
they agree otherwise or some special circumstance
justifies an alternative alignment. Continental shelf
Air boundaries
The 1944 Convention on International Civil
Aviation and the 1982 UN Convention on the Law
of the Sea recognise absolute state sovereignty over
the land area of the state and its territorial sea, and
over the airspace above. The upper limit of state
control of airspace has never been defined, but for
all practical purposes it is the limit of powered flight.
Aircraft of other states must seek permission to
overfly the land territory or the territorial sea of
another state. In normal circumstances this is
granted, but certain airlines such as El Al (Israel)
and South African Airways were once excluded
from the airspace of a number of states for political
reasons. States guard their airspace jealously for the
sake of security and safety, and a number of serious
incidents have occurred in contested airspace.
Aircraft have the right of transit passage through
straits used for international navigation, even
though the strait may fall within the territorial sea
of coastal states (UN Convention on the Law of
the Sea (UNCLOS) 1982, Article 38).
Maritime boundaries
Unlike land boundaries, which generally may be
visibly marked, maritime boundaries are not
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