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tial. Gardner investigated also the extraordinari-
ness. He described four forms of extraordinary
individuals: a master who gains complete mastery
over one or more domains of accomplishment; a
maker who devotes energies to the creation of a
new domain; one who introspects and explores
his/her inner life; and an influencer who has an
impact on other individuals.
cognitive development in terms of his theory:
the concrete operational stage applies first-order
relations; transition to formal means second-order
relations; post formal may mean the third-order
analogies in a 3-D semantic space, analogies be-
tween two analogies: (A
1
: B
1
:: C
1
: D
1
):: (A
2
: B
2
::
C
2
: D
2
). Examples of the third-order analogy are:
(Bench: Judge:: Pulpit: Minister):: (Head: Hair::
Lawn: Grass) or (Machine Language: Hardware::
Programming Language: Software):: (Language
of the Brain: Neural Connections:: Ordinary
Language: Cognitive Structures).
With the cognitive approach, Robert J. Stern-
berg (2011) defined intelligence as a mental
activity directed toward purposive adaptation
to, selection, and shaping of, real-world envi-
ronments relevant to one's life. He discerned
meta-components (used in problem-solving and
decision-making), performance components
(perceiving problems in long-term memory,
perceiving relations between objects, and apply-
ing them in new sets of terms) and knowledge-
acquisition components in the work of mind
(used in obtaining information). However,
different contexts and tasks require different
types of giftedness: componential/analytical,
experiential/creative, and practical/contextual.
In order to understand adult intelligence, main
aspects of intelligence may be explored in terms
of the relation to the internal or mental world
of the learner, its relation to experience, and
its relation to the surrounding world. Sternberg
characterized the differences between everyday
problems and academic or test-taking problems.
The academic problems are pre-recognized,
predefined, and well structured; most school
problems have one right answer; academic
problems provide relevant information; in
school settings, there is clear feedback; and
schools emphasize individual problem solving.
Sternberg's theory of intellectual styles, based
on a notion of mental self-government, concerns
the ways in which people use their intelligence.
The Structure-of-Intellect Model
Joy Paul Guilford (1967, 1968) developed the
structure-of-intellect (SI) model consisting of
cells depicting the intellectual abilities classified
in three intersecting ways. The three dimensions
of the model represent: operation (evaluation,
convergent production, divergent production,
memory, cognition); product (units, classes, rela-
tions, systems, transformations, implications); and
content (figural, symbolic, semantic, behavioral).
In his triarchic theory of intelligence, Robert
Sternberg (1985, 2011, p. 584) depicted intel-
ligence as comprising three aspects dealing with
the relation of intelligence:
1. How intelligence relates to the internal,
inner world of the person, through three
types of processes: metacomponents or
executive planning, monitoring, and evalu-
ation processes; performance processes; and
knowledge-acquisition processes allowing to
learn, to comprehend, to remember informa-
tion (a componential subtheory).
2. How intelligence relates to experience (the
experiential subtheory).
3. How intelligence relates to the external world
of the individual (the contextual subtheory).
Sternberg (1985, 1999) explored higher-order
reasoning in post-formal operational thought and
defined orders of relations in terms of what is
related: first-order relations are between primitive
terms, second-order relations are relations between
relations, and so on. He described the stages of
