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orientation scales (performance approach and performance avoidance) were found
to be highly correlated with each other (
r
0.74,
p
< 0.01). However, those perfor-
mance goal-orientation scales showed no statistically significant correlations with
mastery goal orientation. Mastery goal orientation scale was positively correlated
with all of the learning strategies (elaboration:
r
=
=
0.39,
p
< 0.01; control:
r
=
0.48,
p
< 0.01; effort:
r
0.54,
p
< 0.01). Both of the performance goal orientation
scales were correlated only with elaboration (
r
=
=
0.07 to 0.03,
p
< 0.01) and effort
(
r
0.09,
p
< 0.01). Finally, performance goal orientation scales showed positive
correlations with worry (
r
=−
0.13 to 0.18,
p
< 0.01) whereas mastery goal orientation
showed no statistically significant correlation with worry.
With regard to personal motivational beliefs, two of the performance goal orien-
tation scales (performance approach and performance avoidance) were found to be
highly correlated with each other (
r
=
0.74,
p<
0.01). However, those performance
goal orientation scales showed no statistically significant correlations with mastery
goal orientation. Mastery goal orientation scale was positively correlated with all of
the learning strategies (elaboration:
r
=
=
0.39,
p<
0.01; control:
r
=
0.48,
p<
0.01;
effort:
r
0.54,
p<
0.01). Both of the performance goal orientation scales were
correlated only with elaboration (
r
=
0.09,
p<
0.01). Finally, performance goal orientation scales showed positive correlations
with worry (
r
=
0.07 to 0.03,
p<
0.01) and effort (
r
=−
0.13 to 0.18,
p<
0.01) whereas mastery goal orientation showed
no statistically significant correlation with worry.
Correlations between learning strategies and achievement
. Consistent with the
findings from prior research, learning strategies were positively correlated with
the achievement variable (elaboration:
r
=
=
0.12,
p
< 0.01; control:
r
=
0.17,
p
< 0.01; effort:
r
0.20,
p
< 0.01). However, maladaptive help-seeking had a
negative correlation with achievement (
r
=
0.26,
p
< 0.01). Academic efficacy
was also positively correlated with achievement (
r
=−
=
0.24,
p
< 0.01), whereas worry
was negatively correlated (
r
0.34,
p
< 0.01). Research on worry supports the
negative effects of worry and academic outcome (Elliot &McGregor, 1999; Vagg &
Papsdorf, 1995).
=−
Multi-Group Confirmatory Factor Analysis
Preliminary CFA for overall model
. Preliminary confirmatory factor analyses were
conducted with M plus 3.13 (Muthén & Muthén, 2004) using maximum likelihood
estimation. We hypothesized a nine-factor model in which the items for each fac-
tor load on their respective latent variable. The results supported the hypothesized
theoretical model, indicating that all the factor loadings were significant and our
nine-factor solution had a good fit to the data with regard to acceptable levels of
fit (Comparative Fit Index [CFA]
=
0.96; Tucker-Lewis Index [TLI]
=
0.96; root-
mean-square error of approximation [RMSEA]
=
0.03), although the chi-square
2
value was statistically significant (
0.000). It should
be noted that chi-square is sensitive to sample size, and the larger the sample size,
χ
=
2,429.14,
df
=
878,
p
=
