Geology Reference
In-Depth Information
11
Sea Ice Service in Canada: History and Current
Operational Programs
Sea ice represents a major limitation for ships and off-
shore operations at high latitudes in both hemispheres.
Hazardous sea ice is measured by a combination of ice
thickness, strength, and velocity. In consolidated ice fields
it is measured by the first two factors only. Sea ice of
2-3 m thick can only be navigated by icebreaker or ice‐
strengthened vessels with a sufficient ice class (classes are
designated to ships in order to reflect their strength for
navigation through sea ice). Most ships and fishing ves-
sels are not ice strengthened and must therefore avoid
hazardous ice areas. Ice‐strengthened ships, on the other
hand, can navigate through thick FY ice but not the
thicker and harder MY ice (for definitions of ice types
see section 2.6.1). Offshore platforms operating in ice‐
covered waters must have stronger construction than is
required in ice‐free waters. Similarly, harbors and loading
terminals require stronger construction in areas of sea
ice. Since sea ice is mobile, it is therefore of primary
importance to monitor it daily and produce ice forecasts
to assist ship traffic, fisheries, and other marine opera-
tions. A few sea ice operational monitoring programs
exist in different countries including Canada, the United
States., Russia, Norway, Denmark, Finland, and China.
The following paragraphs provide a synopsis of the ice
monitoring program in Canada.
As a northern country that has a long border with the
Arctic Ocean, Canada shares a high stake in sea ice.
There are five countries surrounding the Arctic Ocean:
Russia, Canada, United States (via Alaska), Norway,
and Denmark (via Greenland). Canada's coastline is the
largest in the world and so is its territorial seawater
(22 km adjacent to the coast). Its Arctic territorial water
is the second largest after Russia. The Arctic Ocean is
divided into four basins. The largest is the Canadian
basin, which extends from Alaska to northern Greenland
west of the 0-180° longitude. Most of the Arctic Ocean,
especially the western region in the Canadian basin, is
covered with ice for most of the year. Sea ice covers other
areas in Canadian waters in sub‐Arctic and further
southern areas such as the Davis Strait, the Labrador
Sea, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence on the east coast. For
Canada, sea ice is a fact of life that affects many eco-
nomic and human activities in the north. This fact stimu-
lated the Canadian government to establish a dedicated
sea ice service program (reconnaissance, monitoring, and
forecasting) as early as the mid‐twentieth century. This
chapter reflects on Canadian history and interests in
the national sea ice service. The authors would like to
acknowledge the effort of Ms. Maria A. Latyszewskyj,
head of the Library Service of the Corporate Service
Branch of Environment Canada (Toronto), in providing
material on historical development of the Canadian sea
ice surveillance program.
Currently, the Canadian Ice Service (CIS) of
Environment Canada (the Federal Department of the
Environment) is mandated to provide the most accurate
and timely information about sea and lake ice in Canada's
navigable waters. The purpose is to “ensure the safety and
the efficiency of maritime operations and to help protect
Canada's environment.” (CIS website; http://www.ec.gc.
ca/glaces-ice/). The operational sea ice program at CIS
monitors sea ice conditions and produces daily, weekly,
and seasonal sea ice maps as well as other long‐term fore-
cast and climatic archive products in the six regions
shown in Figure 11.1 (details are provided in section 11.2).
Latest ice maps in each region can be accessed through
the same aforementioned CIS website. Among the six
regions, the Arctic Ocean region has the least frequent
products of ice mapping since marine traffic hardly exits
in it. The western Arctic region includes part of the
Canadian Arctic Archipelago (CAA) area. This area has
become increasingly important in recent years because of
