Geography Reference
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from forecasting models (McFadden
1974
). As a result, even today, forecasting
models incorporate relatively few attributes (Handy
2005
). In addition, we can only
detect the revealed effect of a built environment on walking due to the calibration
nature of discrete choice models. Calibration is difficult because revealed behavior -
what residents actually do - is not necessarily the same as preferred behavior -
what residents would choose to do given a desired set of alternatives (Handy and
Niemeier
1997
). Revealed behavior is shaped by the specific alternatives available.
For example, if a community does not have good pedestrian access, residents will
make few pedestrian trips; however, this does not imply they would not make such
trips if pedestrian access were better. Hence, an understanding-oriented theory that
defines specific factors influencing travel behavior could provide a constructive
process that explores the real concerns of individuals.
5.3.3
Understanding-Oriented Behavior Theory
Social psychology theories have been used widely in physical activity studies,
including empirical studies that apply the TPB to walking behavior. The theory of
reasoned action (TRA) and its extension, the TPB, together provide a framework
to decipher individuals' actions by identifying, measuring and combining their
beliefs, allowing us to understand their own reasons that motivate the behavior of
interest (Montano and Kasprzyk
2008
). The TRA and TPB assume that the best
predictor of a behavior is behavioral intention (Ajzen
1991
). In the TPB, the first
determinant of intention, attitude, is an individual's positive or negative evaluation
of the behavior. The second determinant, subjective norm, is the person's perception
of the social pressure to perform or not perform the behavior under consideration.
The third determinant, perceived behavioral control, is the sense of self-efficacy
accompanying the ability to perform the behavior of interest. It has been argued that
spatial cognition of the environment is equal to the salient beliefs of the TPB and
the preference is the same as intention (Van Acker et al.
2010
). If more theoretical
foundations and empirical evidence on this point could be proven, the TPB may be
used to normalize subjective measurements of that environment.
Relevant behavioral outcomes, referents and control beliefs are likely to be
different for different populations and behaviors (Ajzen and Driver
1992
). Belief
elicitation study is a critical step when using the TPB to establish the cognitive
foundation of a population's salient behavioral, normative and control beliefs (Ajzen
and Fishbein
1980
). Only after the belief elicitation procedure can the general
TPB theory be applied to understand a specific behavior for a specific population.
Although the elicitation phase of TPB studies is important, it is often neglected
by researchers (Hagger et al.
2002
; Downs and Hausenblas
2005
). In the TPB,
these background factors are insignificant when constructing the determinants of
behavior (Ajzen
2005
). In contrast, in transportation studies, it is doubtful that
an individual's socio-demographic and socio-economic background factors have
real effects on travel behavior, and land use indicators may be surrogates of
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