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those factors. Ajzen argues that although a given background factor may influence
behavioral, normative or control beliefs, there is no necessary connection between
background factors and beliefs. Background factors, including demographic and
economic characteristics, are assumed to operate through model constructs but
do not independently contribute to explaining the likelihood of a behavior being
performed. Whether or not a given belief is affected by a particular background
factor is an empirical question. Hence, the TPB leaves us spaces to complement the
determinants of walking behavior if the necessity arises.
5.3.4
Utility Maximization and “Rationality”
Clarifying basic assumptions will help us understand the theories. Activity-based
approaches and discrete choice models assume that human decision making is based
on the utility maximization principle (Koenig 1980 ). Discrete choice models and
the TPB hypothesize that human behavior is rational. It should be noted that the
common use of the term “rational behavior” is based on the beliefs of an observer,
not the individual, about what the outcome of a decision should be. The beliefs and
objective functions of different observers may vary.
It has been recognized that individuals do not always act rationally when
maximizing their utility. This is not to say that individuals are irrational; rather, it
means that rationality is not always simple (Golledge and Stimson 1997 ; Montano
and Kasprzyk 2008 ). A fundamental assumption of the TPB is that individuals are
“rational actors” who process information and have underlying reasons that deter-
mine motivations to perform a behavior. These reasons constitute one's behavioral,
normative, and control beliefs, and determine his or her attitudes, subjective norms
and perceived control, regardless of whether those beliefs are rational, logical or
correct by some objective standard (Fishbein 2007 ; Montano and Kasprzyk 2008 ).
Some researchers argue that behavior is “irrational” when the behavior changes to a
habit (Verplanken et al. 1998 ). However, measurements of habit strength are neither
reliable nor provable. Studies have found that a prior behavior (habit) doesn't predict
a later behavior effectively when the built environment has changed (Bamberg et al.
2003 ).
5.4
Conceptual Model and Study Design
Many studies signify the need for better conceptual models to guide future studies
(Handy 2005 ; Handy et al. 2002 ; Ewing et al. 2003 ; Owen et al. 2004 ). Other than
the cross-sectional study design, researchers must undertake longitudinal design
to achieve a “deeper examination of direct and indirect relationships, interactions,
and hypothesized paths of causality” (Saelens and Handy 2008 ). To fully explore
the built environment's influence on walking behavior, both forecast-oriented and
understanding-oriented theories should be applied.
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