Geoscience Reference
In-Depth Information
Table 1-1.
Ecosystem services and functions used for estimating the value of major biomes of the world. Based on
Costanza et al. (1997, Table 1).
Ecosystem services Ecosystem functions
Examples
Gas regulation
Atmospheric chemical composition
Oxygen, ozone, sulfur oxides, UV protection
Climate regulation
Global, regional and local weather and climate Greenhouse gases, cloud formation
Disturbance
regulation
Absorbing and damping ecosystem responses
Storm protection, fl ood control, drought recovery
Water regulation
Hydrological fl ows
Irrigation, transportation, industrial applications
Water supply
Storage and retention
Soil moisture, aquifers, streams and reservoirs
Erosion and
sedimentation
Retention of soil and sediment
Prevention of soil loss, siltation in lakes
Soil formation
Soil-forming processes
Rock weathering, organic matter accumulation
Nutrient cycling
Storage, processing and transfer of nutrients
Nitrogen fi xation, K and P cycles
Waste treatment
Nutrient recovery, removal of harmful
substances
Pollution control detoxifi cation
Pollination
Movement of fl oral gametes
Pollinators for plant reproduction
Biological control
Regulation of populations
Predator control of prey
Refugia
Habitat for resident and migratory populations
Nurseries, regional habitats, migratory routes
Food production
Gross primary production for food
Crops, fi sh, game, fruits and nuts, livestock
Raw materials
Gross primary production for materials
Timber, fi ber, fuel, fodder, minerals and ores
Genetic resources
Unique biological materials and products
Medicines, plant and animal varieties, ornamental
species
Recreation
Recreational opportunities
Ecotourism, sport fi shing and hunting, bird
watching
Cultural
Non-commercial uses
Artistic, aesthetic, spiritual, religious, or scientifi c
values
±
(
15° latitude) with a peak abundance just south
of the Equator. Central Africa, northern South
America, northern Australia, Indochina, and
Indonesia possess substantial tropical wetland
regions. Signii cant temperate wetlands are situ-
ated in middle latitudes (30-50°) in eastern
China, the eastern United States, and central
Europe (USDA 1996).
This global pattern of wetland distribution
occurs at the conl uence of local terrestrial and
hydrological conditions and general climatic cir-
culation. Inl uential climatic conditions include
heavy precipitation and evapotranspiration in
the tropics and moderate precipitation with
limited evapotranspiration at middle to high lati-
tudes. The results in both cases are surplus
surface waters. Parts of the subtropical zone
(
Figure 1-12.
Layer of postglacial peat (*)
1 m thick
resting on glacial till in western Poland. Photo by
J.S. Aber.
∼
regions of high to middle northern latitudes,
namely from about 50-70 degrees north (Mat-
thews and Fung 1987; Matthews 1993; Mitsch
and Gosselink 2007). Most of the wetlands north
of 60° latitude are affected by permafrost (U.S.
Department of Agriculture (USDA) 1996). This
includes large areas in Alaska, Canada, Scandi-
navia, and Russia. A second concentration in
wetland distribution is found in the tropics
∼
15-30° latitude), in contrast, are characterized
by scarce precipitation and high rates of eva-
potranspiration, which lead to well-known
deserts
-
Sahara, Kalahari, Gobi, southwestern
United States, western Australia, etc. Still, major
wetlands such as the marshes of southern Iraq
