Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
quantities. Current treatment technologies are not able to remove these trace sub-
stances. There are
first tentative technologies such as special membranes or oxi-
dization processes which make removal possible. However, to date there are no
legal thresholds which could serve as a guidance for sewage plant operators.
”
It is not quite true to say that treatment technologies are not available to treat or
oxidize PPCPs. UV-based Advanced Oxidation equipment exists and has been
shown to be a very effective method of treating PPCPs (Trojan Technologies
2000
)
(see information on the Trojan case studies in Dore
2015
, Chap. 4,
“
Water Policy In
Ontario
). These Advanced Oxidation processes can be used for treating waste-
water or for drinking water. These techniques are also very cost-effective.
”
12.5.1 Micropollutants in the Netherlands
There are now over
five million man-made chemicals, approximately 100,000 of
which are de
ned in the European Inventory of Existing Commercial Chemical
Substances (EINECS) list (Van Leeuwen et al.
2007
). These chemicals are
increasingly evident in the environment everywhere, including the high Arctic.
There is also growing evidence of the adverse health impacts these chemicals are
having on many life forms, especially aquatic life.
Some of the adverse impacts are due to improper disposal of pharmaceuticals
and personal care products (PPCPs) into source waters that are also sources of
drinking water. Many compounds have been detected in drinking water sources
(Richardson
2007
and Loos et al.
2009
). For example, in the Netherlands, over
1,300 compounds have been detected in drinking water sources since 1983, espe-
cially pharmaceuticals such as analgesics, antibiotics, anti-epileptics, and X-ray
contrast media. Some of them are in very low concentrations, as scienti
c detection
methods keep advancing so that lower and lower concentrations can be detected.
For some of these compounds, the concentrations are below the level that will
threaten human health (i.e. 10
170 ng/L) (Van Genderen et al.
2000
; Stan et al.
1994
; Zuccato et al.
2000
; Ternes
2001
; WHO
2011
; Christensen
1998
; Schulman
et al.
2002
; Webb
2001
; Mons et al.
2003
; Mons
2003
; Versteegh and Dik
2007
).
Table
12.1
presents an overview of concentrations of some of the pharmaceu-
ticals detected in treated water in the Netherlands, in comparison with their safe
drinking water levels (SDWLs) and their minimum therapeutic doses. The con-
centrations are all far below the SDWLs. Furthermore, lifetime consumption of this
drinking water would result in a total accumulated dose (I
70
) of less than one daily
dose for therapeutic treatment.
Therapeutic health effects are therefore not to be expected, even after chronic
exposure, let alone toxic health effects (which usually occur at higher doses than
therapeutic effects). Nevertheless, the presence of such pharmaceuticals (Ter Laak
et al.
2010
; De Jongh et al.
2012
) and drugs of abuse (De Voogt et al.
2011
)
receives a lot of negative media attention and may have a negative effect on
consumer con
-
dence in the quality of drinking water.
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