Introduction to Electrochemistry and Electroanalysis with Carbon Paste–Based Electrodes - Electroanalysis with Carbon Paste Electrodes - page 8

trends.are.also.documented.in.the.retrospective.literature.[7,83,84],.including.the.latest.two.reviews.
[111,112],.with.a.collection.of.review.articles.since.the.appearance.of.the.very.irst.contribution.[2].
of.a.kind.compiled.nearly.a.half.a.century.ago.by.R.N..Adams,.the.inventor.of.carbon.paste.
However,.the.most.signiicant.movement.of.the.late.2000s.is.undoubtedly.associated.with.the.
commencement.of.newly.synthesized.forms.of.carbon.(i).besides.or.(ii).instead.of.ordinary.graphite.
and.with.(iii).conventional.or.(iv).alternate.binders,.as.well.as.(v).both.in.one.mixture..These.ive.
possible.combinations.have.logically.resulted.in.a.qualitatively.variable.family.of.new.carbon.paste.
mixtures.
Within.this.area,.(i).glassy.carbon.powder.with.spherical.particles.and.a.specially.pretreated.sur-
face. [95,96,113]. came. again. to. the. fore,. shown. newly. as. the. electrode. material. with. extraordinary.
resistivity. in. media. with. a. higher. content. of. organic. solvents. (such. as. solutions. containing. up. to.
80%-90%.(v/v).MeOH.[114])..Better.performances.due.to.electrocatalytic.effect.on.reaction.kinetics.
compared.with.traditional.carbon.or.graphite.materials.have.then.been.reported.for.carbon.pastes.
prepared.from.(ii).acetylene.black.[115],.(iii).template.carbon,.(iv).porous.carbon.foam,.(v).porous.
carbon.microspheres.[116],.and.(vi).fullerene.“C-60”.[117]..Interestingly,.the.carbon.moiety.in.a.paste.
mixture.can.also.be.(vii).diamond.powder.[118].despite.its.almost.zero.conductivity..In.the.last.few.
years,.intensively.popularized.new.forms.of.carbon.have.been.completed.with.(viii).ordered.mes-
oporous. carbon. [119]),.(ix).carbon.nanoparticles.[120],.(x).electrospun.carbon.nanoibers.(ES-CFs.
[121]),.or.with.(xi).carbon.nanotubes.[122].and.their.two.basic.variants:.single.wall.carbon.nanotubes,.
SWCNT(s).and.multiwall.carbon.nanotubes,.MWCNT(s).
The.CNT(s).deserve.a.special.attention.as.their.introduction.into.electrochemistry.with.car-
bon.pastes.[123,124].has.started.a.little.revolution.in.the.ield,.with.the.unprecedented.boom.of.
qualitatively.new.carbon.paste.mixtures.and.the.respective.electrodes,.known.soon.as.“carbon.
nanotube. paste. electrodes”. (CNTPEs).. A. similar. situation. occurred. after. the. irst. successful.
testing.of.the.(room-temperature).ionic.liquids,.(RT)ILs,.in.carbon.paste.conigurations.[125]..
It. was. shown. soon. that. ILs. may. effectively. replace. traditional. pasting. liquids. [126],. giving.
rise.to.another.new.type.of.carbon.paste-based.electrodes,.the.so-called.“carbon.ionic.liquid.
electrodes”.(CILEs)..In.accordance.with.the.aforementioned.variability.of.conigurations.with.
alternate.carbon.paste.constituents,.the.mutual.combinations.of.CNT.or.ES-CFs.with.ILs.came.
as.well,.giving.rise.to.further.new.mixtures.[127,128],.where.one.does.not.ind.any.of.the.two.
traditional.components.
Otherwise,.the.last.years.of.the.2000s.have.also.seen.some.new.trends.in.electrochemical.inves-
tigation,.for.instance,.the.rapidly.increasing.popularity.of.carbon.pastes.as.substrates.for.electropo-
lymerization. or. their. compatibility. to. form. integrated. systems. with. modiiers. loaded. inside. such.
polymeric.layers.(see.[129-138])..Another.example.of.such.activities.is.a.rapidly.growing.area.of.
continuing.syntheses.and.testing.of.various.inorganic.or.organic.hybrids,.especially,.of.new.cata-
lysts.. Within. the. respective. procedures,. one. can. also. ind. quite. sophisticated. methods. of. direct.
modiication.of.carbon.during.electrospinning.[139].or.a.long.string.of.analogically.oriented.stud-
ies,.originating.from.various.Chinese.regions.and.having.appeared.regularly.each.year.(see,.e.g.,.
[140-147]).
For.the.latter,.it.is.typical.that.the.newly.synthesized.solids.undergo.an.intimate.character-
ization. by. means. of. the. whole. arsenal. of. instrumental. techniques,. namely,. CHN-elemental.
analysis.(EA);.thermogravimetric.analysis.(TGA);.microscopic.techniques.(SEM,.STEM,.and.
AFM);. UV/vis-spectrophotometry;. luorimetry. (F);. roentgen. spectroscopy. of. solids. (XPS,.
XRF,. and. XRD);. Fourier-transform. infrared. (FT-IR),. Auger-,. and. mass. spectroscopy. (MS);.
and. up. to. four. variants. of. nuclear. magnetic. resonance. (H 1 -NMR,. C 13 -NMR,. Si 29 -NMR,. and.
P 31 -NMR).. The. electrochemistry. with. carbon. pastes. is. then. represented. by. cyclic. voltammetry.
(CV),.potentiostatic.coulometry.(COU),.equilibrium.potentiometry.(POT),.chronoamperometry.
(CA),.electrochemical.impedance.spectroscopy.(EIS),.and.mainly.solid-state.voltammetry.(SPV).
with. the. CPEE,. where. the. material. studied. is. admixed. into. the. carbon. paste. bulk. and,. in. this.
form,.studied.to.evaluate.its.electrocatalytic.capabilities.in.the.redox.behavior.of.selected.model.