Agriculture Reference
In-Depth Information
blending technology, procedures, organization, communication, and
individual behavior.
The “modern” defense-in-depth concept has profited from two
sources at least: (1) The results of the human factors research on cate-
gories of errors and mishaps, which led to more effective error preven-
tion and risk mitigation strategies (Reason, 1990; Reason, 1997; Amal-
berti, 2005); (2) The results of organizational studies attempting to better
understand the social production of safety during “normal” operations
(Rochlin, La Porte, & Roberts, 1987; Weick, 1987; La Porte & Consolini,
1991; Rochlin, 1998; Weick & Roberts, 1993; Bourrier, 1999, Bourrier,
2002; Perin, 2005), along with important work done on major accidents
(Vaughan, 1996; Starbuck & Farjoun, 2005), which revealed the mecha-
nisms of what Vaughan has labeled “the normalization of deviance,” or
Snook, “the drift into failure” (Snook, 2000).
Of course, the idea that barriers have to be diverse has been heavily
influenced by the findings that numerous accident investigation commis-
sions brought to light: Big accidents are rarely triggered by a unique,
isolated human error, as often claimed in the past. Nor are they only
caused by faulty technology. On the contrary, organizational factors
play a crucial role in the fatal development of catastrophes, such as
Chernobyl (Reason, 1987), Bhopal (Shrivastava, 1987), the two losses
of the NASA shuttles (
Challenger
, 1986,
Columbia
, 2003), or the con-
taminated blood scandal in Europe in the late 1980s (Setbon, 1993),
to name only a few. For most safety experts, the organizational factors
are the next frontier to be explored so as to see continuing progress in
safety in high-risk industries. This hard-to-achieve progress will guaran-
tee that the central role of these systems in the functioning of our soci-
eties, despite the risks and hazards involved, still meet with broad public
support. To illustrate our point: airplanes are considered as safe as pos-
sible, safer than any other means of transportation (even if new techni-
cal improvements are always possible, probably not much progress can
be obtained there), yet the current civil aviation safety problems point
toward problems in air traffic management and airport infrastructure,
