Environmental Engineering Reference
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Within the detection limits, no sample was found to contain aldrin, dieldrin, heptachlor,
heptachlor epoxide, endrin, or γ- and α-chlordane residues. The estimated daily intakes
(EDIs) for total DDTs, γ-HCH, and total HCH residues never exceeded the recommended
FAO/WHO acceptable daily intake (ADIs). The possible health impact of these pollutants
was reviewed.
Cerrillo et al. (2005) investigated the presence of endosulfan I, endosulfan II, and endo-
sulfan metabolites in fatty and nonfatty tissues and fluids from women of reproductive
age and children in Southern Spain. All of the human milk samples analyzed contained
endosulfan ether. The second most frequently found compound was endosulfan lactone,
which was present in 91.3% of the human milk samples. The most abundant was endosul-
fan II, with a mean concentration of 10.70 ng/mL of human milk. The highest concentra-
tion of commercial endosulfan I and endosulfan II was found in human milk, with a mean
value (I+II) of 11.38 ng/mL milk. These findings support the lipophilicity of these chemi-
cals and their elimination by milk secretion. Therefore, women of reproductive age in
Southern Spain appear to be currently exposed to endosulfan compounds. Because these
chemicals can be mobilized during pregnancy and lactation, further research is necessary
to investigate the health consequence in children resulting from exposure to chemicals
suspected of immunotoxic, neurotoxic, or endocrine-disrupting effects.
Human breast milk samples, collected during April 2007 in Tabriz, Iran, were analyzed
for organochlorine pesticides (Behrooz et al. 2009). The OCs present at the highest concen-
tration were HCB (1020 ng/g lipid weight), DDT (1930 ng/g lipid weight), and HCH (1660
ng/g lipid weight;
Table 17.6
). OCPs were the major contaminants in the samples from
Tabriz, Iran, with p,p′-DDE being measured in all samples, and β-HCH having a detection
frequency of 90%. β-HCH was the most prevalent HCH isomer with a mean of 735 ng/g
lipid weight. The mean concentration of β-HCH was 580 ng/g lipid weight, while the mean
concentration of β-HCH was 350 ng/g lipid weight. HCB was found in 14 human milk
samples (46%), with a mean concentration of 1020 ng/g lipid weight.
A study was conducted to determine the types and levels of OCP residues in the breast
milk of 21 primiparous mothers in La, a suburb of Accra urban community in the Greater
Accra region of Ghana by Tutu et al. (2011). The concentrations of OCP residues in the
human breast milk samples ranged from 1.839 to 99.05 μg/kg fat. With the exception of
endosulfan sulfate, whose mean concentration (99.052 μg/kg) was above the Australian
Maximum Residue Limit (MRL) of 20 μg/kg for milk, the mean concentrations for all the
other organochlorines detected were below their respective limits.
The levels of 13 OCPs were measured in the breast milk from 87 Tunisian mothers
throughout their lactation periods (Ennaceur et al. 2007). All samples contained detectable
residues of p,p′-DDE (2.421 mg/kg milk fat) and HCB (0.260 mg/kg milk fat). The other
OCP residues were detected in the following order of frequency: dieldrin 38%, β-HCH
22.9%, and γ-HCH 6.8%.
17.6.5 Variation Associated with Parity and Age
In lactating women, several factors such as the number of previous children, age of mother,
food intake preferences, and breast-feeding parameters can affect the concentrations of
OCs in human milk (Harris et al. 2001). The levels of excreted OCPs are influenced by
several factors such as the donor's age, number of children, and duration of breast-feeding
(Czaja et al. 2001). Despite this, concentrations of OCs decrease with the increase in the
number of previous children nursed (Minh et al. 2004). There was no association (p > 0.05)
between the concentrations of OCs and the number of children, which might be due to
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