Distribution and biological control of Chromolaena odorata - Invasive Plants: Ecological and Agricultural Aspects - page 201

established in Marihat, North Sumatra, Indonesia from the galls received from
Colombia. After host specificity testing, the flies were released and established
in North Sumatra in 1995 [51]. Since then it has been released throughout
Indonesia [52]. A shipment of this gall fly was received in Guam in 1998 from
Indonesia and field released in 2002. However, a serious typhoon in July 2002
disrupted its establishment. Again a culture was imported from Palau (which
was originally sent from Guam) and field established in 2003. From Guam
shipments of this fly were sent to Palau in 1999 [53], Saipan and Rota in 2003,
and Pohnpei in 2003 (Muniappan, personal observation) and established in the
field. A shipment of this fly was also sent to Chuuk from Pohnpei (K
Englberger, personal communication).
Cecidochares connexa was imported to the Philippines from Indonesia in
1999 [54] and then to Papua New Guinea from the Philippines in 2001. It has
been established in Papua New Guinea [55] but it is still in quarantine in the
Philippines. It was imported to India in 2002 from Indonesia and is currently
being host specificity tested. It was also sent to Taiwan from Guam in 2004 and
it is being cultured in the quarantine facility. It was imported to South Africa
from Indonesia in 1996 and 1998 but it did not survive on the South African
biotype [56].
Actinote anteas Doubleday and Hewitson (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae:
Acraeinae)
This butterfly was imported to Indonesia from Costa Rica in 1996 [51]. The
life cycle takes about 73-102 days. Eggs are laid in batches. Caterpillars feed
on chromolaena and Mikania micrantha Kunth (Asteraceae) leaves. It was
released and established in the field Indonesia in 1999 [51].
Actinote anteas was imported in to South Africa in 1990 but the laboratory
culture died out as the South Africa biotype of chromolaena was not suitable
for the insect or due to disease [17]. Another species Actinote thalia pyrrha
Fabricius (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae: Acraeinae) was imported from Brazil to
South Africa in 1995 but it was not released for safety reasons as it fed on
Mikania species [16]. Both A. anteas and A. thalia pyrrha were imported to
Guangdong Entomological Institute, China, in 2001 for control of chromolae-
na and Mikania [57].
A list of major natural enemies of chromolaena introduced to different coun-
tries and their status is given in Table 1. In general, P. pseudoinsulata and C.
connexa have proven effective among the various natural enemies evaluated.
South Africa
Since the South African biotype of chromolaena is different and the attempts
to utilize natural enemies released for control of chromolaena in Asia were not