Agriculture Reference
In-Depth Information
Moreover, ecological concerns arose. Firstly, monocultures were blamed for
lacking biodiversity. The villagers had observed poor undergrowth and decreased
numbers of wild animals in the plantations. Secondly, another concern was
related to water resources. Although trees were generally appreciated for their
ability to maintain water balance, the species used in reforestation, eucalyptus
and pine, were suspected of decreasing surface waters and even of lowering the
groundwater table. Thirdly, concern was expressed over the susceptibility of
plantations to forest fires. Pine forests, in particular, burned regularly and fire
spread easily within the forest, which was regarded as a hazard for villages and
the surrounding environment. Fire in natural pine forests was perceived to be less
hazardous because they were predominantly located on mountaintops and cov-
ered a rather small area. Moreover, the problem with government reforestation
sites was that the villagers lacked control over the area and therefore felt unable
to manage fires there.
Discontent focused on two planted tree species: eucalyptus and pine. People
had observed decreases in water flow in adjacent streams and rivers and conse-
quently blamed these species for diminishing water resources. One interviewee
explained how waxy leaves and needles that decompose slowly prevent water from
soaking into the soil and running straight to the river. Eucalyptus was also blamed
for insufficient shading and inability to withstand hard winds (for local opposition
to eucalyptus see also Rayanakorn 2000). In comparison to natural forest land-
scapes, straight rows of trees, furthermore, lacked aesthetic values, which were
also significant for the local people.
In general, the ecological benefits of reforestation were acknowledged when
local species were planted. The RFD had for forest landscape rehabilitation pur-
poses experimented with planting other species instead of pine and eucalyptus,
mixing species at the same site instead of a monoculture, and also providing seed-
lings of multipurpose tree species, such as fruit trees, for villagers. People wished
that reforestation activities could also provide benefits for their livelihood, income
and in addition, increasing numbers of non-timber forest products. They moreover
wanted to participate more in the selection of planted species. Some people, however,
regarded reforestation as unnecessary because of the capability of the forest to
regenerate naturally. In places, natural regeneration was indeed promoted by pro-
tecting the area from disturbances.
19.7
Trees Planted by Communities
The reforestation projects were chiefly government initiatives but communities and
individual farmers also planted trees on their own initiative. The RFD and NGOs
often provided seedlings for these purposes. A common principle was, to quote one
interviewee: 'If a villager cuts ten trees from the community forest, he or she has
to replant ten trees'. While the government's main objective in reforestation was to
increase tree cover in watersheds, the villagers' objectives also included multiple
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