Agriculture Reference
In-Depth Information
Ecocentric
Biocentric
Sentientistic
Anthropocentric
Figure 8.1
The four main categories for ethical theories dealing with questions regarding human-
animal and human-nature relationships: anthropocentric, sentientistic, biocentric and ecocentric
(Leopold 1949, Singer 1981). The idea of an evolution of ethics, however, has been discussed by
several philosophers before Leopold and Singer such as Albert Schweizer, Thomas Huxley and Peter
Kropotkin as well as by Charles Darwin).
As used here, these definitions do not deal with the question of intrinsic value, since it is
theoretically possible to assign an entity intrinsic value but not direct moral concern; con-
versely, an animal can be the focus of moral concern but be independent of, or without, an
intrinsic value (Röcklinsberg 2001).
The relationship among these different approaches is illustrated in Figure 8.1.
Aldo Leopold, a leading ecocentric theorist and biologist wrote: 'A thing is right when it
tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong when
it tends otherwise' (Leopold 1949, pp. 224-225). This statement emphasises the holistic view
and systems approaches associated with ecocentric ethics.
Organic farming is substantially based in ecocentric ethics (Alrøe
et
al
. 2001, Lund and
Röcklinsberg 2001, Verhoog
et
al
. 2004). Ecocentric ethics largely responds to the same kind of
issues that organic farming views as central, in particular the environmental concerns and the
aim for a holistic view, and such a view has consequences for how 'quality of life' for farm
animals is understood.
Is animal welfare an issue according to organic alues?
Ecocentric ethics focus on nature as a whole, and the most important objective is to maintain
or create well-functioning and sustainable ecosystems, which fits with the values espoused by
the organic farming movement. From the principles of organic farming (IFOAM 2000), as well
as IFOAM's published policy papers, it is clear that in general, the organic movement's primary
goals focus on ecological sustainability rather than on animal welfare. Of the 17 general prin-
ciples stated in the
IFOAM
Basic
Standards
, 13 deal with sustainability and only one explicitly
with animal welfare.
The ecocentric approach essentially sees the wellbeing of individual animals living in the
systems as secondary to the wellbeing of the system itself. For example, the organic view is that
treating animals with chemical substances, antibiotics or other compounds that may affect the
ecosystem negatively should be avoided, irrespective of the consequences for individual
animals. The use of such substances is also considered unsustainable since the microorgan-
